Monomer/dimer ratios of replication protein modulate the DNA strand-opening in a replication origin

Handcuffing reversal is facilitated by proteases and replication initiator monomers

Specific nucleoprotein complexes are formed strictly to prevent over-initiation of DNA replication. An example of those is the so-called handcuff complex, in which two plasmid molecules are coupled together with plasmid-encoded replication initiation protein (Rep). In this work, we elucidate the mechanism of the handcuff complex disruption. In vitro tests, including dissociation progress analysis, demonstrate that the dimeric variants of plasmid RK2 replication initiation protein TrfA are involved in assembling the plasmid handcuff complex which, as we found, reveals high stability. Particular proteases, namely Lon and ClpAP, disrupt the handcuff by degrading TrfA, thus affecting plasmid stability. Moreover, our data demonstrate that TrfA monomers are able to dissociate handcuffed plasmid molecules. Those monomers displace TrfA molecules, which are involved in handcuff formation, and through interaction with the uncoupled plasmid replication origins they re-initiate DNA synthesis. We discuss the relevance of both Rep monomers and host proteases for plasmid maintenance under vegetative and stress conditions.

Opening the Strands of Replication Origins-Still an Open Question

The local separation of duplex DNA strands (strand opening) is necessary for initiating basic transactions on DNA such as transcription, replication, and homologous recombination. Strand opening is commonly a stage at which these processes are regulated. Many different mechanisms are used to open the DNA duplex, the details of which are of great current interest. In this review, we focus on a few well-studied cases of DNA replication origin opening in bacteria. In particular, we discuss the opening of origins that support the theta (θ) mode of replication, which is used by all chromosomal origins and many extra-chromosomal elements such as plasmids and phages. Although the details of opening can vary among different origins, a common theme is binding of the initiator to multiple sites at the origin, causing stress that opens an adjacent and intrinsically unstable A+T rich region. The initiator stabilizes the opening by capturing one of the open strands. How the initiator binding energy is harnessed for strand opening remains to be understood.

Iteron Plasmids

Iteron-containing plasmids are model systems for studying the metabolism of extrachromosomal genetic elements in bacterial cells. Here we describe the current knowledge and understanding of the structure of iteron-containing replicons, the structure of the iteron plasmid encoded replication initiation proteins, and the molecular mechanisms for iteron plasmid DNA replication initiation. We also discuss the current understanding of control mechanisms affecting the plasmid copy number and how host chaperone proteins and proteases can affect plasmid maintenance in bacterial cells.

Molecular Dissection of the Essential Features of the Origin of Replication of the Second Vibrio cholerae Chromosome

Vibrionaceae family members are interesting models for studying DNA replication initiation, as they contain two circular chromosomes. Chromosome II (chrII) replication is governed by two evolutionarily unique yet highly conserved elements, the origin DNA sequence oriCII and the initiator protein RctB. The minimum functional region of oriCII, oriCII-min, contains multiple elements that are bound by RctB in vitro, but little is known about the specific requirements for individual elements during oriCII initiation. We utilized undirected and site-specific mutagenesis to investigate the functionality of mutant forms of oriCII-min and assessed binding to various mutant forms by RctB. Our analyses showed that deletions, point mutations, and changes in RctB target site spacing or methylation all impaired oriCII-min-based replication. RctB displayed a reduced affinity for most of the low-efficacy origins tested, although its characteristic cooperative binding was generally maintained. Mutations that removed or altered the relative positions of origin components other than RctB binding sites (e.g., AT-rich sequence, DnaA target site) also abolished replicative capacity. Comprehensive mutagenesis and deep-sequencing-based screening (OriSeq) allowed the identification of a previously uncharacterized methylated domain in oriCII that is required for origin function. Together, our results reveal the remarkable evolutionary honing of oriCII and provide new insight into the complex interplay between RctB and oriCII.

The genome of the enteric pathogen Vibrio cholerae consists of two chromosomes. While the chromosome I replication origin and its cognate replication initiator protein resemble those of Escherichia coli, the factors responsible for chromosome II replication initiation display no similarity to any other known initiation systems. Here, to enhance our understanding of how this DNA sequence, oriCII, and its initiator protein, RctB, function, we used both targeted mutagenesis and a new random-mutagenesis approach (OriSeq) to finely map the oriCII structural features and sequences required for RctB-mediated DNA replication. Collectively, our findings reveal the extraordinary evolutionary honing of the architecture and motifs that constitute oriCII and reveal a new role for methylation in oriCII-based replication. Finally, our findings suggest that the OriSeq approach is likely to be widely applicable for defining critical bases in cis-acting sequences.

Initiator protein dimerization plays a key role in replication control of Vibrio cholerae chromosome 2

RctB, the initiator of replication of Vibrio cholerae chromosome 2 (chr2), binds to the origin of replication to specific 12-mer sites both as a monomer and a dimer. Binding to 12-mers is essential for initiation. The monomers also bind to a second kind of site, 39-mers, which inhibits initiation. Mutations in rctB that reduce dimer binding increase monomer binding to 12-mers but decrease monomer binding to 39-mers. The mechanism of this paradoxical binding behavior has been unclear. Using deletion and alanine substitution mutants of RctB, we have now localized to a 71 amino acid region residues important for binding to the two kinds of DNA sites and for RctB dimerization. We find that the dimerization domain overlaps with both the DNA binding domains, explaining how changes in the dimerization domain can alter both kinds of DNA binding. Moreover, dimerization-defective mutants could be initiation-defective without apparent DNA binding defect. These results suggest that dimerization might be important for initiation beyond its role in controlling DNA binding. The finding that determinants of crucial initiator functions reside in a small region makes the region an attractive target for anti-V. cholerae drugs.

Plasmid R6K replication control

The focus of this minireview is the replication control of the 39.9-kb plasmid R6K and its derivatives. Historically, this plasmid was thought to have a narrow host range but more recent findings indicate that its derivatives can replicate in a variety of enteric and non-enteric bacterial species (Wild et al., 2004). In the four-plus decades since it was first described, R6K has proven to be an excellent model for studies of plasmid DNA replication. In part this is because of its similarities to other systems in which replication is activated and regulated by Rep protein and iteron-containing DNA. However its apparent idiosynchracies have also added to its significance (e.g., independent and co-dependent replication origins, and Rep dimers that stably bind iterons). Here, we survey the current state of knowledge regarding R6K replication and place individual regulatory elements into a proposed homeostatic model with implications for the biological significance of R6K and its multiple origins of replication.

AT-rich region and repeated sequences - the essential elements of replication origins of bacterial replicons

Repeated sequences are commonly present in the sites for DNA replication initiation in bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic replicons. Those motifs are usually the binding places for replication initiation proteins or replication regulatory factors. In prokaryotic replication origins, the most abundant repeated sequences are DnaA boxes which are the binding sites for chromosomal replication initiation protein DnaA, iterons which bind plasmid or phage DNA replication initiators, defined motifs for site-specific DNA methylation, and 13-nucleotide-long motifs of a not too well-characterized function, which are present within a specific region of replication origin containing higher than average content of adenine and thymine residues. In this review, we specify methods allowing identification of a replication origin, basing on the localization of an AT-rich region and the arrangement of the origin's structural elements. We describe the regularity of the position and structure of the AT-rich regions in bacterial chromosomes and plasmids. The importance of 13-nucleotide-long repeats present at the AT-rich region, as well as other motifs overlapping them, was pointed out to be essential for DNA replication initiation including origin opening, helicase loading and replication complex assembly. We also summarize the role of AT-rich region repeated sequences for DNA replication regulation.

Investigations of pi initiator protein-mediated interaction between replication origins alpha and gamma of the plasmid R6K

A typical plasmid replicon of Escherichia coli, such as ori gamma of R6K, contains tandem iterons (iterated initiator protein binding sites), an AT-rich region that melts upon initiator-iteron interaction, two binding sites for the bacterial initiator protein DnaA, and a binding site for the DNA-bending protein IHF. R6K also contains two structurally atypical origins called alpha and beta that are located on either side of gamma and contain a single and a half-iteron, respectively. Individually, these sites do not bind to initiator protein pi but access it by DNA looping-mediated interaction with the seven pi-bound gamma iterons. The pi protein exists in 2 interconvertible forms: inert dimers and active monomers. Initiator dimers generally function as negative regulators of replication by promoting iteron pairing ("handcuffing") between pairs of replicons that turn off both origins. Contrary to this existing paradigm, here we show that both the dimeric and the monomeric pi are necessary for ori alpha-driven plasmid maintenance. Furthermore, efficient looping interaction between alpha and gamma or between 2 gamma iterons in vitro also required both forms of pi. Why does alpha-gamma iteron pairing promote alpha activation rather than repression? We show that a weak, transitory alpha-gamma interaction at the iteron pairs was essential for alpha-driven plasmid maintenance. Swapping the alpha iteron with one of gamma without changing the original sequence context that caused enhanced looping in vitro caused a significant inhibition of alpha-mediated plasmid maintenance. Therefore, the affinity of alpha iteron for pi-bound gamma and not the sequence context determined whether the origin was activated or repressed.

Conformation of a plasmid replication initiator protein affects its proteolysis by ClpXP system

Proteins from the Rep family of DNA replication initiators exist mainly as dimers, but only monomers can initiate DNA replication by interaction with the replication origin (ori). In this study, we investigated both the activation (monomerization) and the degradation of the broad-host-range plasmid RK2 replication initiation protein TrfA, which we found to be a member of a class of DNA replication initiators containing winged helix (WH) domains. Our in vivo and in vitro experiments demonstrated that the ClpX-dependent activation of TrfA leading to replicationally active protein monomers and mutations affecting TrfA dimer formation, result in the inhibition of TrfA protein degradation by the ClpXP proteolytic system. These data revealed that the TrfA monomers and dimers are degraded at substantially different rates. Our data also show that the plasmid replication initiator activity and stability in E. coli cells are affected by ClpXP system only when the protein sustains dimeric form.

Cooperative binding mode of the inhibitors of R6K replication, pi dimers

The replication initiator protein, pi, plays an essential role in the initiation of plasmid R6K replication. Both monomers and dimers of pi bind to iterons in the gamma origin of plasmid R6K, yet monomers facilitate open complex formation, while dimers, the predominant form in the cell, do not. Consequently, pi monomers activate replication, while pi dimers inhibit replication. Recently, it was shown that the monomeric form of pi binds multiple tandem iterons in a strongly cooperative fashion, which might explain how monomers outcompete dimers for replication initiation when plasmid copy number and pi supply are low. Here, we examine cooperative binding of pi dimers and explore the role that these interactions may have in the inactivation of gamma origin. To examine pi dimer/iteron interactions in the absence of competing pi monomer/iteron interactions using wild-type pi, constructs were made with key base changes to each iteron that eliminate pi monomer binding yet have no impact on pi dimer binding. Our results indicate that, in the absence of pi monomers, pi dimers bind with greater cooperativity to alternate iterons than to adjacent iterons, thus preferentially leaving intervening iterons unbound and the origin unsaturated. We discuss new insights into plasmid replication control by pi dimers.

Structure-based functional analysis of the replication protein of plasmid R6K: key amino acids at the pi/DNA interface

In previous work, we characterized the bases in an iteron of plasmid R6K that are important for the binding of pi protein monomers and dimers. Here we investigate the following six amino acids of pi, encoded by pir, hypothesized to be important for DNA contact: Ser71, Try74, Gly131, Gly211, Arg225, and Arg254.

Mechanism of origin activation by monomers of R6K-encoded pi protein

One recurring theme in plasmid duplication is the recognition of the origin of replication (ori) by specific Rep proteins that bind to DNA sequences called iterons. For plasmid R6K, this process involves a complex interplay between monomers and dimers of the Rep protein, pi, with seven tandem iterons of gamma ori. Remarkably, both pi monomers and pi dimers can bind to iterons, a new paradigm in replication control. Dimers, the predominant form in the cell, inhibit replication, while monomers facilitate open complex formation and activate the ori. Here, we investigate a mechanism by which pi monomers out-compete pi dimers for iteron binding, and in so doing activate the ori. With an in vivo plasmid incompatibility assay, we find that pi monomers bind cooperatively to two adjacent iterons. Cooperative binding is eliminated by insertion of a half-helical turn between two iterons but is diminished only slightly by insertion of a full helical turn between two iterons. These studies show also that pi bound to a consensus site promotes occupancy of an adjacent mutated site, another hallmark of cooperative interactions. pi monomer/iteron interactions were quantified using a monomer-biased pi variant in vitro with the same collection of two-iteron constructs. The cooperativity coefficients mirror the plasmid incompatibility results for each construct tested. pi dimer/iteron interactions were quantified with a dimer-biased mutant in vitro and it was found that pi dimers bind with negligible cooperativity to two tandem iterons.

Crystal structure of pi initiator protein-iteron complex of plasmid R6K: implications for initiation of plasmid DNA replication

We have determined the crystal structure of a monomeric biologically active form of the pi initiator protein of plasmid R6K as a complex with a single copy of its cognate DNA-binding site (iteron) at 3.1-A resolution. The initiator belongs to the family of winged helix type of proteins. The structure reveals that the protein contacts the iteron DNA at two primary recognition helices, namely the C-terminal alpha4' and the N-terminal alpha4 helices, that recognize the 5' half and the 3' half of the 22-bp iteron, respectively. The base-amino acid contacts are all located in alpha4', whereas the alpha4 helix and its vicinity mainly contact the phosphate groups of the iteron. Mutational analyses show that the contacts of both recognition helices with DNA are necessary for iteron binding and replication initiation. Considerations of a large number of site-directed mutations reveal that two distinct regions, namely alpha2 and alpha5 and its vicinity, are required for DNA looping and initiator dimerization, respectively. Further analysis of mutant forms of pi revealed the possible domain that interacts with the DnaB helicase. Thus, the structure-function analysis presented illuminates aspects of initiation mechanism of R6K and its control.

Origin inactivation in bacterial DNA replication control

Initiation of DNA replication is a highly regulated process in all organisms. Proteins that are required to recruit DNA polymerase - initiator proteins - are often used to regulate the timing or frequency of initiation in the cell cycle by limiting either their own synthesis or availability. Studies of the Escherichia coli chromosome and of bacterial plasmids with iterated initiator binding sites (iterons) have revealed that, in addition to initiator limitation, replication origin inactivation is used to prevent replication that is untimely or excessive. Our recent studies of plasmid P1 revealed that this additional mode of control becomes a requirement when initiator availability is limited only by autoregulation. Thus, although initiator limitation appears to be a well-conserved and central mode of replication control, optimal replication might require additional control mechanisms. This review gives examples of how the multiple mechanisms can act synergistically, antagonistically or be partially redundant to guarantee low frequency events. The lessons learned are likely to help understand many other regulatory systems in the bacterial cell.

Oligomeric initiator protein-mediated DNA looping negatively regulates plasmid replication in vitro by preventing origin melting

Although DNA looping between the initiator binding sites (iterons) of the replication origin (ori) of a plasmid and the iterons located in a cis-acting control sequence called inc has been postulated to promote negative control of plasmid DNA replication, not only was definitive evidence for such looping lacking, but also the detailed molecular mechanism of this control had not been elucidated. Here, we present direct evidence showing that both the monomeric and the dimeric forms of the RepE initiator protein of F factor together promote pairing of incC-oriF sites by DNA looping. By using a reconstituted replication system consisting of 26 purified proteins, we show further that the DNA loop formation negatively regulates plasmid replication by inhibiting the formation of an open complex at the replication origin, thus elucidating a key step of replication control.

Positioning and the specific sequence of each 13-mer motif are critical for activity of the plasmid RK2 replication origin

The minimal replication origin of the broad-host-range plasmid RK2, oriV, contains five iterons which are binding sites for the plasmid-encoded replication initiation protein TrfA, four DnaA boxes, which bind the host DnaA protein, and an AT-rich region containing four 13-mer sequences. In this study, 26 mutants with altered sequence and/or spacing of 13-mer motifs have been constructed and analysed for replication activity in vivo and in vitro. The data show that the replacement of oriV 13-mers by similar but not identical 13-mer sequences from Escherichia coli oriC inactivates the origin. In addition, interchanging the positions of the oriV 13-mers results in greatly reduced activity. Mutants with T/A substitutions are also inactive. Furthermore, introduction of single-nucleotide substitutions demonstrates very restricted sequence requirements depending on the 13-mer position. Only two of the mutants are host specific, functional in Pseudomonas aeruginosa but not in E. coli. Our experiments demonstrate considerable complexity in the plasmid AT-rich region architecture required for functionality. It is evident that low internal stability of this region is not the only feature contributing to origin activity. Our studies suggest a requirement for sequence-specific protein interactions within the 13-mers during assembly of replication complexes at the plasmid origin.

Role of pi dimers in coupling ("handcuffing") of plasmid R6K's gamma ori iterons

One proposed mechanism of replication inhibition in iteron-containing plasmids (ICPs) is "handcuffing," in which the coupling of origins via iteron-bound replication initiator (Rep) protein turns off origin function. In minimal R6K replicons, copy number control requires the interaction of plasmid-encoded pi protein with the seven 22-bp iterons of the gamma origin of replication. Like other related Rep proteins, pi exists as both monomers and dimers. However, the ability of pi dimers to bind iterons distinguishes R6K from most other ICPs, where only monomers have been observed to bind iterons. Here, we describe experiments to determine if monomers or dimers of pi protein are involved in the formation of handcuffed complexes. Standard ligation enhancement assays were done using pi variants with different propensities to bind iterons as monomers or dimers. Consistent with observations from several ICPs, a hyperreplicative variant (pi.P106L(wedge)F107S) exhibits deficiencies in handcuffing. Additionally, a novel dimer-biased variant of pi protein (pi.M36A(wedge)M38A), which lacks initiator function, handcuffs iteron-containing DNA more efficiently than does wild-type pi. The data suggest that pi dimers mediate handcuffing, supporting our previously proposed model of handcuffing in the gamma ori system. Thus, dimers of pi appear to possess three distinct inhibitory functions with respect to R6K replication: transcriptional autorepression of pi expression, in cis competition (for origin binding) with monomeric activator pi, and handcuffing-mediated inhibition of replication in trans.

Bacterial expression system with tightly regulated gene expression and plasmid copy number

A new Escherichia coli host/vector system has been engineered to allow tight and uniform modulation of gene expression and gamma origin (ori) plasmid copy number. Regulation of gamma ori plasmid copy number is achieved through arabinose-inducible expression of the necessary Rep protein, pi, whose gene was integrated into the chromosome of the host strain under control of the P(BAD) promoter. gamma ori replication can be uniformly modulated over 100-fold by changing the concentration of l-arabinose in the growth medium. This strain avoids the problem of all-or-nothing induction of P(BAD) because it is deficient in both arabinose uptake and degradation genes. Arabinose enters the cell by a mutant LacY transporter, LacYA177C, which is expressed from the host chromosome. Although this strain could be compatible with any gamma ori plasmid, we describe the utility of a gamma ori expression vector that allows especially tight regulation of gene expression. With this host/vector system, it is possible to independently modulate gene expression and gene dosage, facilitating the cloning and overproduction of toxic gene products. We describe the successful use of this system for cloning a highly potent toxin, Colicin E3, in the absence of its cognate immunity protein. This system could be useful for cloning genes encoding other potent toxins, screening libraries for potential toxins, and maintaining any gamma ori vector at precise copy levels in a cell.

Binding modes of the initiator and inhibitor forms of the replication protein pi to the gamma ori iteron of plasmid R6K

Discerning the interactions between initiator protein and the origin of replication should provide insights into the mechanism of DNA replication initiation. In the gamma origin of plasmid R6K, the Rep protein, pi, is distinctive in that it can bind the seven 22-bp iterons in two forms; pi monomers activate replication, whereas pi dimers act as inhibitors. In this work, we used wild type and variants of the pi protein with altered monomer/dimer ratios to study iteron/pi interactions. High resolution contact mapping was conducted using multiple techniques (missing base contact probing, methylation protection, base modification, and hydroxyl radical footprinting), and the electrophoretic separation of nucleoprotein complexes allowed us to discriminate between contact patterns produced by pi monomers and dimers. We also isolated iteron mutants that affected the binding of pi monomers (only) or both monomers and dimers. The mutational studies and footprinting analyses revealed that, when binding DNA, pi monomers interact with nucleotides spanning the entire length of the iteron. In contrast, pi dimers interact with only the left half of the iteron; however, the retained interactions are strikingly similar to those seen with monomers. These results support a model in which Rep protein dimerization disturbs one of two DNA binding domains important for monomer/iteron interaction; the dimer/iteron interaction utilizes only one DNA binding domain.

pi protein- and ATP-dependent transitions from 'closed' to 'open' complexes at the gamma ori of plasmid R6K

R6K-encoded pi protein can bind to the seven, 22 bp tandem iterons of the gamma origin. In this work, we use a variant of pi, His-pi.F107S, that is hyperactive in replication. In vitro, His-pi.F107S-dependent local DNA melting (open complex formation) occurs in the absence of host proteins (IHF/HU or DnaA) and it is positioned in the A + T-rich region adjacent to iterons. Experiments described here examine the effects of ATP, Mg2+ and temperature on the opening reaction. We show that the opening of the gamma origin can occur in the presence of ATP as well as AMP-PCP (a non-hydrolyzable ATP analog). This suggests that, for gamma origin, ATP hydrolysis may be unnecessary for open complex formation facilitated by His-pi.F107S. In the absence of ATP or Mg2+, His-pi.F107S yielded data suggestive of distortions in the iteron attributable to DNA bending rather than DNA melting. Our findings also demonstrate that ATP and pi stimulate open complex formation over a wide range of temperatures, but not at 0 degrees C. These and other results indicate that ATP and/or Mg2+ are not needed for His-pi.F107S binding to iterons and that ATP effects an allosteric change in the protein bound to gamma origin.

Isomerization and apparent DNA bending by π, the replication protein of plasmid R6K

Plasmid R6K-encoded pi protein has multiple regulatory functions in replication and transcription. These functions rely, in part, on a complex set of interactions between monomers and dimers of the protein and distinct DNA targets, the direct and inverted repeats (DRs, IRs). In the work described here, we examine the isomerization and DNA bending properties of pi using electrophoretic mobility shift assays and circular permutation assays. Our data suggest that pi dimers can bend IRs, and dimer subunits seem to readily associate in head-to-head and head-to-tail fashion. The ability of pi to bend DRs is also reexamined using techniques that allow us to discriminate between bending induced by its different isomeric forms. We find that both monomers and dimers bend a single DR to similar degrees while results with 2DRs are more complex. The significance of the bending data in regard to a possible mechanism for replication initiation by pi protein is discussed.

Biochemical investigations of control of replication initiation of plasmid R6K

The mechanistic basis of control of replication initiation of plasmid R6K was investigated by addressing the following questions. What are the biochemical attributes of mutations in the pi initiator protein that caused loss of negative control of initiation? Did the primary control involve only initiator protein-ori DNA interaction or did it also involve protein-protein interactions between pi and several host-encoded proteins? Mutations at two different regions of the pi-encoding sequence individually caused some loss of negative control as indicated by a relatively modest increase in copy number. However, combinations of the mutation P42L, which caused loss of DNA looping, with those located in the region between the residues 106 and 113 induced a robust enhancement of copy number. These mutant forms promoted higher levels of replication in vitro in a reconstituted system consisting of 22 purified proteins. The mutant forms of pi were susceptible to pronounced iteron-induced monomerization in comparison with the WT protein. As contrasted with the changes in DNA-protein interaction, we found no detectable differences in protein-protein interaction between wild type pi with DnaA, DnaB helicase, and DnaG primase on one hand and between the high copy mutant forms and the same host proteins on the other. The DnaG-pi interaction reported here is novel. Taken together, the results suggest that both loss of negative control due to iteron-induced monomerization of the initiator and enhanced iteron-initiator interaction appear to be the principal causes of enhanced copy number.

A multifunctional plasmid-encoded replication initiation protein both recruits and positions an active helicase at the replication origin

The DnaA replication initiation protein has been shown to be essential for DNA strand opening at the AT-rich region of the replication origin of the Escherichia coli chromosome as well as serving to recruit and position the DnaB replicative helicase at this open region. Homologues of the dnaA gene of E. coli have been found in most bacterial species, and the DnaA protein has been shown to be required for the initiation of replication of both chromosomal and plasmid DNA. For several plasmid elements it has been found that a plasmid-encoded initiation protein is required along with the DnaA protein to bring about opening of the AT-rich region at the replication origin. The broad host range plasmid RK2 encodes two forms of its replication initiation protein (TrfA-33 and TrfA-44) that differ by an additional 98 aa at the N terminus of the larger (TrfA-44) form. Both forms initiate replication of RK2 in E. coli in vitro by a DnaA-dependent mechanism. However, as shown in this study, TrfA-44 specifically interacts with the DnaB replicative helicase of Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and initiates the formation of a prepriming open complex in the absence of DnaA protein. Thus, the TrfA-44 initiation protein has the multifunctional properties of recruiting and positioning an active form of the DnaB helicase at the RK2 replication origin by a DnaA-independent process. This unique property for a replication initiation protein undoubtedly plays an important role in extending the host range of the RK2 antibiotic resistance plasmid.

Characterization of His-tagged, R6K-encoded pi protein variants

The pi protein of plasmid R6K is a multifunctional replication (Rep) protein, its different activities attributable, in part, to different oligomeric states: monomers and dimers. We have previously shown that His-tagged variants of the protein can exhibit alterations in dimer stability. Herein, we examined the functional properties of selected His-tagged derivatives of pi (His-pi x wt and three hyperactive replication variants) to determine if the functionality of these proteins in replication, DNA binding, and oligomerization is altered. Our results indicate that these tagged proteins retain the characteristics previously demonstrated for their non-tagged counterparts making them suitable for ongoing studies of pi protein structure and functions in replication and transcription.

Structural changes in RepA, a plasmid replication initiator, upon binding to origin DNA

RepA protein is the DNA replication initiator of the Pseudomonas plasmid pPS10. RepA dimers bind to an inversely repeated operator sequence in repA promoter, thus repressing its own synthesis, whereas monomers bind to four directly repeated sequences (iterons) to initiate DNA replication. We had proposed previously that RepA is composed of two winged-helix (WH) domains, a structural unit also present in eukaryotic and archaeal initiators. To bind to the whole iteron sequence through both domains, RepA should couple monomerization to a conformational change in the N-terminal WH, which includes a leucine zipper-like sequence motif. We show for the first time that, by itself, binding to iteron DNA in vitro dissociates RepA dimers into monomers and alters RepA conformation, suggesting an allosteric effect. Furthermore, we also show that similar changes in RepA are promoted by mutations that substitute two Leu residues of the putative leucine zipper by Ala, destabilizing the hydrophobic core of the first WH. We propose that this mutant (RepA-2L2A) resembles a transient folding intermediate in the pathway leading to active monomers. These findings, together with the known activation of other Rep-type proteins by chaperones, are relevant to understand the molecular basis of plasmid DNA replication initiation.

Common domains in the initiators of DNA replication in Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya: combined structural, functional and phylogenetic perspectives

Although DNA replication is the universal process for the transmission of genetic information in all living organisms, until very recently evidence was lacking for a related structure and function in the proteins (initiators) that trigger replication in the three 'Life Domains' (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya). In this article new data concerning the presence of common features in the initiators of chromosomal replication in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes are reviewed. Initiators are discussed in the light of: (i) The structure and function of their conserved ATPases Associated with various cellular Activities (AAA+) and winged-helix domains. (ii) The nature of the macromolecular assemblies that they constitute at the replication origins. (iii) Their possible phylogenetic relationship, attempting to sketch the essentials of a hypothetical DNA replication initiator in the micro-organism proposed to be the ancestor of all living cells.

Strategies for helicase recruitment and loading in bacteria

DNA replication initiation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes requires the recruitment and loading of a helicase at the replication origin. To subsequently unwind the double-stranded DNA, the helicase must be properly positioned on the separated DNA strands. Several studies have revealed similarities and differences in the mechanisms used by different autonomously replicating DNA elements (replicons) for recruitment and activation of the appropriate helicase. Of particular interest are plasmid replicons that are adapted for replication in diverse bacterial hosts and are therefore intriguingly able to exploit the helicases of distantly related bacterial species. The different molecular mechanisms by which replicons recruit and load helicases are only just beginning to be understood.

Long CTG.CAG repeats from myotonic dystrophy are preferred sites for intermolecular recombination

Homologous recombination was shown to enable the expansion of CTG.CAG repeat sequences. Other prior investigations revealed the involvement of replication and DNA repair in these genetic instabilities. Here we used a genetic assay to measure the frequency of homologous intermolecular recombination between two CTG.CAG tracts. When compared with non-repeating sequences of similar lengths, long (CTG.CAG)(n) repeats apparently recombine with an approximately 60-fold higher frequency. Sequence polymorphisms that interrupt the homogeneity of the CTG.CAG repeat tracts reduce the apparent recombination frequency as compared with the pure uninterrupted repeats. The orientation of the repeats relative to the origin of replication strongly influenced the apparent frequency of recombination. This suggests the involvement of DNA replication in the recombination process of triplet repeats. We propose that DNA polymerases stall within the CTG.CAG repeat tracts causing nicks or double-strand breaks that stimulate homologous recombination. The recombination process is RecA-dependent.

Activation of the herpes simplex virus type-1 origin-binding protein (UL9) by heat shock proteins

Heat shock proteins participate in the initiation of DNA replication of different organisms by facilitating the assembly of initiation complexes. We have examined the effects of human heat shock proteins (Hsp40 and Hsp70) on the interaction of the herpes simplex virus type-1 initiator protein (UL9) with oriS, one of the viral origins of replication. Hsp40 and Hsp70 act substoichiometrically to increase the affinity of UL9 for oriS. The major contributor to this effect is Hsp40. Heat shock proteins also stimulate the ATPase activity of UL9 with oriS and increase opening of the origin. In contrast, heat shock proteins have no effect on the origin-independent activities of UL9 suggesting that their role is not merely in refolding denatured protein. These observations are consistent with a role for heat shock proteins in activating UL9 to efficiently initiate viral origin-dependent DNA replication. The action of heat shock proteins in this capacity is analogous to their role in activating the initiator proteins of other organisms.