1
|
Piao F, Aadil RM, Suleman R, Li K, Zhang M, Wu P, Shahbaz M, Ahmed Z. Ameliorative effects of taurine against diabetes: a review. Amino Acids 2018; 50:487-502. [PMID: 29492671 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-018-2544-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Diets in rats and humans have shown promising results. Taurine improved glucagon activity, promoted glycemic stability, modified glucose levels, successfully addressed hyperglycemia via advanced glycation end-product control, improved insulin secretion and had a beneficial effect on insulin resistance. Taurine treatment performed well against oxidative stress in brain, increased the secretion of required hormones and protected against neuropathy, retinopathy and nephropathy in diabetes compared with the control. Taurine has been observed to be effective in treatments against diabetic hepatotoxicity, vascular problems and heart injury in diabetes. Taurine was shown to be effective against oxidative stress. The mechanism of action of taurine cannot be explained by one pathway, as it has many effects. Several of the pathways are the advanced glycation end-product pathway, PI3-kinase/AKT pathway and mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The worldwide threat of diabetes underscores the urgent need for novel therapeutic measures against this disorder. Taurine (2-aminoethane sulfonic acid) is a natural compound that has been studied in diabetes and diabetes-induced complications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fengyuan Piao
- School of Public Health, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China.
| | - Rana Muhammad Aadil
- National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faislabad, Pakistan
| | - Raheel Suleman
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agriculture Science, Beijing, China
| | - Kaixin Li
- School of Public Health, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Mengren Zhang
- School of Public Health, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Pingan Wu
- School of Public Health, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Muhammad Shahbaz
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Muhammad Nawaz Sharif University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Zulfiqar Ahmed
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Environmental and Agricultural Sciences, Islamia University Bahawalpur, Bhawalpur, Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
The potential usefulness of taurine on diabetes mellitus and its complications. Amino Acids 2011; 42:1529-39. [PMID: 21437784 PMCID: PMC3325402 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-0883-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2011] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Abstract
Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) is a free amino acid found ubiquitously in millimolar concentrations in all mammalian tissues. Taurine exerts a variety of biological actions, including antioxidation, modulation of ion movement, osmoregulation, modulation of neurotransmitters, and conjugation of bile acids, which may maintain physiological homeostasis. Recently, data is accumulating that show the effectiveness of taurine against diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance and its complications, including retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, atherosclerosis and cardiomyopathy, independent of hypoglycemic effect in several animal models. The useful effects appear due to the multiple actions of taurine on cellular functions. This review summarizes the beneficial effects of taurine supplementation on diabetes mellitus and the molecular mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.
Collapse
|
3
|
Espe M, Rathore RM, Du ZY, Liaset B, El-Mowafi A. Methionine limitation results in increased hepatic FAS activity, higher liver 18:1 to 18:0 fatty acid ratio and hepatic TAG accumulation in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Amino Acids 2010; 39:449-60. [PMID: 20112035 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-009-0461-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The current experiment aimed to study whether interactions with lipid metabolism possibly might explain the relative increased liver weight obtained in fish fed sub-optimal methionine levels. A basal diet based on a blend of plant proteins which is low in methionine (1.6 g Met/16 g N) was compared to a methionine adequate diet (2.2 g Met/16 g N) prepared by adding DL-methionine (2.4 g/kg) to the basal diet in the expense of wheat grain. Fish oil was used as the lipid source. The diets were balanced in all nutrients except methionine. The diets were fed to Atlantic salmon (500 g BW) for a period of 3 months. Feed intake did not differ, rendering the intake of all nutrients except methionine equal. Fish fed the low methionine diet had an increased liver size relative to body weight, indicating fat deposition in the liver. Fish given the sub-optimal methionine diet showed about six times higher fatty acid synthase (FAS) activity as compared to the fish fed the adequate methionine diet, indicating a higher de novo lipogenesis. A significant rise in the liver 18:1 to 18:0 fatty acid ratios also supported storage of lipids over fatty acid oxidation. Indeed, methionine limitation resulted in significantly higher TAG concentrations in the liver. Sub-optimal dietary methionine also resulted in lower hepatic taurine concentrations and the total bile acids concentrations were reduced in faeces and tended to be reduced in plasma. Taken together, our data show that salmon fed sub-optimal methionine levels had increased relative liver weight and developed signs commonly described in the early stage of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in rodent models (increased FAS activity, changed fatty acid ratios and TAG accumulation).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marit Espe
- National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research, PO Box 2029, 5817, Nordnes, Norway.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
The Effects of Dietary Taurine Supplementation on Plasma and Liver Lipid in Ovariectomized Rats. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-75681-3_40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
|
5
|
Loizzo A, Carta S, Bennardini F, Coinu R, Loizzo S, Guarino I, Seghieri G, Ghirlanda G, Franconi F. Neonatal taurine administration modifies metabolic programming in male mice. Early Hum Dev 2007; 83:693-6. [PMID: 17493776 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2007.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2006] [Revised: 03/23/2007] [Accepted: 03/24/2007] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The semi-essential amino-acid taurine is involved in glucose homeostasis either in adults or in parental life. Taurine is currently used in neonatal life because it is added to milk formula for babies, and to parental solution for prematures. Here, it has been examined whether taurine administration in lactation modifies adult glucose metabolism. Neonatally taurine-treated mice (50 mg/kg body weight/day, for the first 21 days of life) as adults have lower basal glucose and iAUC after glucose loading curves in comparison with vehicle-treated mice, whereas iAUC following insulin loading curves, plasma lipids and malondialdehyde (MDA), an index of lipid peroxidation were not significantly changed. Thus, in rodents, neonatally administered taurine produces enduring effects in a way that could be advantageous for the control of glucose homoeostasis.
Collapse
|
6
|
Tas S, Sarandol E, Ayvalik SZ, Serdar Z, Dirican M. Vanadyl Sulfate, Taurine, and Combined Vanadyl Sulfate and Taurine Treatments in Diabetic Rats: Effects on the Oxidative and Antioxidative Systems. Arch Med Res 2007; 38:276-83. [PMID: 17350476 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2006.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2006] [Accepted: 09/18/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vanadyl sulfate (VS) and taurine are two promising agents in the treatment of diabetes related to their antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, and hyperinsulinemic effects. Data about the effects of VS on the oxidant-antioxidant system is limited and controversial. However, taurine is a well-documented antioxidant agent and our aim was to investigate the effects of VS, taurine and VS and taurine combination on the oxidative-antioxidative systems in streptozotocin-nicotinamide (STZ-NA) diabetic rats. METHODS Nicotinamide (230 mg/kg, i.p.) and streptozotocin (65 mg/kg, i.p.) were administered. VS (0.75 mg/mL) and taurine (1%) were added to drinking water for 5 weeks. Rats were divided as control (C), diabetes (D), diabetes+VS (D+VS), diabetes+taurine (D+T), diabetes+VS and taurine (D+VST). Plasma and tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography and spectrophotometry, respectively. Paraoxonase and arylesterase activities were measured by spectrophotometric methods and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities were determined using commercial kits. RESULTS VS, taurine and VS and taurine combination treatments reduced the enhanced blood glucose, serum total cholesterol and triglyceride, tissue MDA and plasma MDA (except in the D+VS group) levels and increased the reduced serum insulin level, serum paraoxonase and arylesterase activities, GSH-Px activity and SOD activity (except in the D+VS group). CONCLUSIONS The findings of the present study suggest that VS and taurine exert beneficial effects on the blood glucose and lipid levels in STZ-NA diabetic rats. However, VS might exert prooxidative or antioxidative effects in various components of the body and taurine and VS combination might be an alternative for sole VS administration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sibel Tas
- Department of Biology, Science and Literature Faculty, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Choi MJ, Kim JH, Chang KJ. The effect of dietary taurine supplementation on plasma and liver lipid concentrations and free amino acid concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2006; 583:235-42. [PMID: 17153607 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-33504-9_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary taurine supplementation on plasma and liver lipid concentrations, and free amino acid concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet. Twenty male rats (body weight 151 +/- 1.9 g) were randomly divided into two groups. The rats in the control group were fed on 1.5% cholesterol diet (control) and those in the experimental group were fed with 1.5% cholesterol and 1.5% taurine diet (TSD). All rats were fed with the experimental diets and deionized water ad libitum for 5 weeks. The plasma glucose and lipid concentrations were measured using commercial kits with enzymatic methods and liver lipid concentrations with the Folch method. The concentrations of free amino acids in plasma were determined with an automated amino acid analyzer based on ion-exchange chromatography. There were no significant differences in the body weight gain, food intake and food efficiency ratio between the control and experimental groups. The rats fed TSD had significantly lower liver weight and liver weight/body weight ratio than those fed control diet. The plasma concentrations of total cholesterol, glucose and LDL-cholesterol were significantly reduced in the rats fed TSD compared to those fed control diet. The rats fed TSD showed significantly decreased liver levels of cholesterol and triglyceride. The HDL-cholesterol level was higher in the rats fed TSD than those fed control diet. The plasma taurine concentrations were not significantly different between two groups. They exhibited significant negative correlation with the plasma total cholesterol and liver triglyceride concentrations. These results suggest the possible role of taurine as a hypocholesterolemic agent in the rats fed a high cholesterol diet. Taurine supplementation did not cause any characteristic changes in the plasma aminogram pattern, body weight gain, and food intake.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Ja Choi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Keimyung University, Korea
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
|
9
|
Franconi F, Di Leo MAS, Bennardini F, Ghirlanda G. Is taurine beneficial in reducing risk factors for diabetes mellitus? Neurochem Res 2004; 29:143-50. [PMID: 14992273 DOI: 10.1023/b:nere.0000010443.05899.2f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Taurine is a semiessential amino acid, and its deficiency is involved in retinal and cardiac degenerations. In recent years, it was found that diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with taurine, and many in vivo experimental studies showed that taurine administration is able to reduce the alterations induced by DM in the retina, lens, and peripheral nerve, although its effects on diabetic kidney are dubious. Interestingly, long-term taurine supplementation reduces the mortality rate in diabetic rats. The mechanisms by which taurine exerts beneficial effects in DM are discussed below. Recently, it has been suggested that taurine deficiency may alter the endocrine pancreas "fetal programming," increasing the risk of insulin resistance in adult life. The bulk of experimental data suggests that taurine administration could be useful in the treatment of type 1 DM and in the prevention of insulin resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Franconi
- Department of Pharmacology and Center for Biotechnology Development and Biodiversity Research, University of Sassari, Italy.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kishida T, Ishikawa H, Tsukaoka M, Ohga H, Ogawa H, Ebihara K. Increase of bile acids synthesis and excretion caused by taurine administration prevents the ovariectomy-induced increase in cholesterol concentrations in the serum low-density lipoprotein fraction of Wistar rats. J Nutr Biochem 2003; 14:7-16. [PMID: 12559472 DOI: 10.1016/s0955-2863(02)00223-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effect of dietary taurine on the concentrations of serum cholesterol and apolipoprotein in lipoprotein fractions of Six-month-old ovariectomized, which were used as a model of hypercholesterolemia in postmenopausal woman, or sham operated rats. Taurine significantly reduced the serum total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations only in the ovariectomized rats. In contrast, taurine significantly lowered the serum apolipoprotein B concentration and serum very low-density lipoprotein-apolipoprotein E concentration only in the sham operated rats. The serum total and high density lipoprotein-apolipoprotein E concentrations were significantly lower in the rats fed taurine than in those fed the control diet regardless of whether they had undergone ovariectomy. The esterified cholesterol level in the liver was significantly lower and the level of hepatic cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase activity was significantly higher in the rats fed taurine than in those fed the control diet. The total bile acids concentration in the feces and intestinal contents of rats fed taurine were significantly higher than those in rats fed the control diet regardless of whether they had undergone ovariectomy. In the sham-rats, taurine accelerated bile acid synthesis and excretion, thereby increasing cholesterol consumption. The increased cholesterol consumption might be compensated by accelerating cholesterol synthesis and/or reducing the synthesis and release of very low-density lipoprotein from the liver. But in the ovariectomized rats, although taurine also accelerated bile acid synthesis and excretion, cholesterol demand might be compensated by excess cholesterol in the blood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taro Kishida
- Department of Biological Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, 790-8566 Matsuyama, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Yokogoshi H, Mochizuki H, Oda H. Dietary taurine changes ascorbic acid metabolism and cholesterol metabolism in rats fed diets containing polychlorinated biphenyls. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2002; 483:169-75. [PMID: 11787595 DOI: 10.1007/0-306-46838-7_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- H Yokogoshi
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Shizuoka, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Mochizuki H, Oda H, Yokogoshi H. Dietary taurine alters ascorbic acid metabolism in rats fed diets containing polychlorinated biphenyls. J Nutr 2000; 130:873-6. [PMID: 10736344 DOI: 10.1093/jn/130.4.873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of dietary taurine on ascorbic acid metabolism and hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes was investigated in rats fed diets containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) to determine whether taurine has an adaptive and protective function in xenobiotic-treated animals. Young male Wistar rats (60 g) were fed diets containing 0 or 0.2 g/kg diet PCB with or without 30 g/kg diet of taurine for 14 d. The rats fed the PCB-containing diets had greater liver weight, higher ascorbic acid concentrations in the liver and spleen and greater hepatic cytochrome P-450 contents than control rats that were not treated with PCB (P < 0.01). In PCB-fed rats, urinary ascorbic acid excretion was enhanced, and serum cholesterol concentration (especially HDL-cholesterol) was significantly elevated compared with those in control rats. Dietary taurine significantly potentiated the increases in the urinary excretion of ascorbic acid and the rise in the levels of cytochrome P-450 which were caused by PCB treatment. On the other hand, the supplementation of taurine to control diet did not alter these variables. Taurine may enhance the hepatic drug-metabolizing systems, leading to the stimulation of the ascorbic acid metabolism in rats fed diets containing PCB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Mochizuki
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Yokogoshi H, Mochizuki H, Nanami K, Hida Y, Miyachi F, Oda H. Dietary taurine enhances cholesterol degradation and reduces serum and liver cholesterol concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet. J Nutr 1999; 129:1705-12. [PMID: 10460208 DOI: 10.1093/jn/129.9.1705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of taurine on hypercholesterolemia induced by feeding a high-cholesterol (HC) diet (10g/kg) to rats was examined. When various amounts of taurine (0.25, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 or 50 g/kg diet) were supplemented to HC for 2 wk, serum total cholesterol gradually and significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner and normalized at the dose of 10 g taurine/kg, compared with the control (cholesterol free) diet group. By contrast, serum HDL-cholesterol was elevated by taurine supplementation. The HC diet caused a significant decrease in the concentration of taurine in serum, liver and heart compared to that in the control group, and the effective dose of supplemental taurine to improve its reduction was 2.5 g/kg diet. In the hypercholesterolemic rats fed the HC diet, the excretion of fecal bile acids and hepatic cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) activity and its mRNA level increased significantly, and the supplementation of taurine further enhanced these indexes, indicating an increase in cholesterol degradation. The abundance of mRNA for Apo A-I, one of the main components of HDL, was reduced by HC and recovered by taurine supplementation. Agarose gel electrophoresis revealed that, in hypercholesterolemic rats fed the HC diet, the serum level of the heavier VLDL increased significantly, but taurine repressed this increase and normalized this pattern. Significant correlations were observed between the time- and dose-dependent increases of CYP7A1 gene expression and the decrease of blood cholesterol concentration in rats fed the HC diet supplemented with taurine (time, r = -0.538, P < 0.01, n = 32; dose, r = -0.738, P < 0.001, n = 20). These results suggest that the hypocholesterolemic effects of taurine observed in the hypocholesterolemic rats fed the HC diet were mainly due to the enhancement of cholesterol degradation and the excretion of bile acid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Yokogoshi
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Mochizuki H, Takido J, Yokogoshi H. Effect of dietary taurine on endogenous hypercholesterolemia in rats fed on phenobarbital-containing diets. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1999; 63:1298-300. [PMID: 10478458 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.63.1298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The effect of dietary taurine on endogenous hypercholesterolemia induced by a phenobarbital-containing diet was investigated. Supplemented taurine did not affect the concentrations of serum cholesterol, but further potentiated the accumulation of hepatic cholesterol in the hypercholesterolemic state induced by phenobarbital. It is suggested that taurine might amplify the hepatic cholesterogenesis in phenobarbital-induced hypercholesterolemia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Mochizuki
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
You JS, Chang KJ. Effects of taurine supplementation on lipid peroxidation, blood glucose and blood lipid metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1998; 442:163-8. [PMID: 9635028 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-0117-0_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of taurine on several complications of diabetes, including oxidative stress, glucose intolerance and blood lipid profile. Sprague Dawley male rats were fed an experimental diet for 7 weeks, at which time they were maintained on drinking water with or without 1% taurine. The experimental period was 7 weeks and the rats were administered streptozotocin (STZ) to induce diabetes. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) content was increased following the STZ injection, but was lowered by prior treatment with taurine. The primary diabetic symptoms, such as polydipsia and polyuria, were ameliorated in rats supplemented with taurine before the STZ injection. Plasma triglyceride (TG) levels of the diabetic group were decreased by taurine supplementation, although plasma total cholesterol (T-chol) and HDL cholesterol (HDL-chol) were not different among the groups. LDL cholesterol (LDL-chol) levels of the control group were significantly decreased by taurine supplementation, however, the time of taurine administration affected the response of the diabetic group; only diabetic rats treated with taurine after the administration of STZ showed a decrease in LDL cholesterol. Therefore, taurine inhibits lipid peroxidation and decreases blood TG and LDL-chol levels, however, the time and dose of taurine supplementation are variables that need to be considered in the treatment of diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J S You
- Department of Food Nutrition, Inha University, Inchon, Korea
| | | |
Collapse
|