CCL22 Signaling in the Tumor Environment

Effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (aspirin and naproxen) on inflammation-associated proteomic profiles in mouse plasma and prostate during TMPRSS2-ERG (fusion)-driven prostate carcinogenesis

Recent preclinical studies have shown that the intake of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) aspirin and naproxen could be an effective intervention strategy against TMPRSS2-ERG fusion-driven prostate tumorigenesis. Herein, as a follow-up mechanistic study, employing TMPRSS2-ERG (fusion) positive tumors and plasma from TMPRSS2-ERG. Ptenflox/flox mice, we profiled the stage specific proteomic changes (focused on inflammatory circulating and prostate tissue/tumor-specific cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors/growth signaling-associated molecules) that contribute to prostate cancer (PCa) growth and progression in the TMPRSS2-ERG fusion-driven mouse model of tumorigenesis. In addition, the association of the protective effects of NSAIDs (aspirin 1400 ppm and naproxen 400 ppm) with the modulation of these specific molecular pathways was determined. A sandwich Elisa based membrane array-proteome profiler identifying 111 distinct signaling molecules was employed. Overall, the plasma and prostate tissue sample analyses identified 54 significant and differentially expressed cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors/growth signaling-associated molecules between PCa afflicted mice (TMPRSS2-ERG. Ptenflox/flox, age-matched noncancerous controls, NSAIDs-supplemented and no-drug controls). Bioinformatic analysis of the array outcomes indicated that the protective effect of NSAIDs was associated with reduced expression of (a) tumor promoting inflammatory molecules (M-CSF, IL-33, CCL22, CCL12, CX3CL1, CHI3L1, and CD93), (b) growth factors- growth signaling-associated molecules (Chemerin, FGF acidic, Flt-3 ligand, IGFBP-5, and PEDF), and (c) tumor microenvironment/stromal remodeling proteins MMP2 and MMP9. Overall, our findings corroborate the pathological findings that protective effects of NSAIDs in TMPSS2-ERG fusion-driven prostate tumorigenesis are associated with antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory effects and possible modulation of the immune cell enriched microenvironment.

In Vivo Polymer Mechanochemistry with Polynucleotides

Polymer mechanochemistry utilizes mechanical force to activate latent functionalities in macromolecules and widely relies on ultrasonication techniques. Fundamental constraints of frequency and power intensity have prohibited the application of the polymer mechanochemistry principles in a biomedical context up to now, although medical ultrasound is a clinically established modality. Here, a universal polynucleotide framework is presented that allows the binding and release of therapeutic oligonucleotides, both DNA- and RNA-based, as cargo by biocompatible medical imaging ultrasound. It is shown that the high molar mass, colloidal assembly, and a distinct mechanochemical mechanism enable the force-induced release of cargo and subsequent activation of biological function in vitro and in vivo. Thereby, this work introduces a platform for the exploration of biological questions and therapeutics development steered by mechanical force.

Analyzing the Functional Roles and Immunological Features of Chemokines in COAD

Chemokines are key proteins that regulate cell migration and immune responses and are essential for modulating the tumor microenvironment. Despite their close association with colon cancer, the expression patterns, prognosis, immunity, and specific roles of chemokines in colon cancer are still not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the mutational features, differential expression, and immunological characteristics of chemokines in colon cancer (COAD) by analyzing the Tumor Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. We clarified the biological functions of these chemokines using Gene Ontology (GO) annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. By univariate and multivariate COX regression analyses, we developed chemokine-based prognostic risk models. In addition, using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) and Gene Set Variant Analysis (GSVA), we analyzed the differences in immune responses and signaling pathways among different risk groups. The results showed that the mutation rate of chemokines was low in COAD, but 25 chemokines were significantly differentially expressed. These chemokines function in several immune-related biological processes and play key roles in signaling pathways including cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions, NF-kappa B, and IL-17. Prognostic risk models based on CCL22, CXCL1, CXCL8, CXCL9, and CXCL11 performed well. GSEA and GSVA analyses showed significant differences in immune responses and signaling pathways across risk groups. In conclusion, this study reveals the potential molecular mechanisms of chemokines in COAD and proposes a new prognostic risk model based on these insights.

Comprehensive analysis of T cell exhaustion related signature for predicting prognosis and immunotherapy response in HNSCC

BACKGROUND

T cell exhaustion (TEX) signifies a condition of T cell disorder which implicate the therapeutic benefits and prognostic significance in patients with cancer. However, its role in the Head and Neck Squamous Carcinoma (HNSCC) remains incompletely understood.

METHODS

The detailed data of HNSCC samples were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and two Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets. We computed the expression scores of four TEX-related pathways and detected gene modules closely linked to these pathways, indicating prognostic significance. Following this, regression analyses were performed to select eight genes for the development of a predictive signature. The predictive capacity of this signature was evaluated. Additionally, we examined the relationships between TEX-related signature risk scores and the effectiveness of immunotherapy as well as drug sensitivity.

RESULTS

A novel prognostic model, comprising eight TEX-related genes, was established for patients with HNSCC. The prognostic value was further confirmed using additional GEO datasets: GSE65858 and GSE27020. This signature enables the stratification of patients into high- and low- risk groups, each showing distinct survival outcomes and responsiveness to immunotherapy. The low-risk group demonstrated improved prognosis and enhanced efficacy of immunotherapy. In addition, AZD6482, TAF1, Ribociclib, LGK974, PF4708671 and other drugs showed increased sensitivity in the high-risk group based on drug sensitivity values, offering tailored therapeutic recommendations for individuals with various risks profiles.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we developed a novel T cell exhaustion-associated signature, which holds considerable predictive value for both the prognosis of patients with HNSCC and the effectiveness of tumor immunotherapy.

Supermolecular nanovehicles co-delivering TLR7/8-agonist and anti-CD47 siRNA for enhanced tumor immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is the most promising method for tumor therapy in recent years, among which the macrophages play a critical role in the antitumor immune response. However, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) usually display the tumor-promoting M2 phenotype rather than the tumor-killing M1 phenotype. Moreover, the over-expressed CD47 on tumor cells severely hinders the function of macrophages by blocking the CD47/SIRPα pathway. Herein, a nano-assembly system of CHTR/siRNA was constructed through the host-guest interaction of a hyperbranched amino-functionalized β-cyclodextrin and immune agonist imiquimod (R848), while CD47 siRNA was loaded inside through electrostatic interaction. The Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8 agonist R848 can "re-educate" macrophages from the protumoral M2 phenotype to antitumoral M1 phenotype, while CD47 siRNA can down-regulate the "don't eat me" CD47 signal on the surface of cancer cells and enhance the phagocytosis of cancer cells by macrophages. Through the dual regulation of TAMs, the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment was relieved, and the host-guest drug-carrying system resulted in synergistic immunotherapy effect on tumors and inhibited tumor growth. The facile self-assembly of nanodrug offers a new strategy in co-delivery of multiple therapeutic agents for cascade cancer immunotherapy.

CCL22 and Leptin associated with steroid resistance in childhood idiopathic nephrotic syndrome

Objective

Previous studies have indicated a decrease in T regulatory cells (Tregs) among patients with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. CCL22 and Leptin influenced the immune function of Tregs through their respective pathways. This study aimed to compare patients with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS) and steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS) in terms of CCL22 and Leptin levels.

Methods

This prospective study included 117 children diagnosed with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS). Peripheral blood samples were collected before initiating steroid therapy, and serum levels of CCL22 and Leptin were measured. Patients were categorized into three groups based on their response to steroid treatment. Renal biopsies were recommended for all children diagnosed with INS, with higher acceptance rates in glucocorticoid resistance patients.

Results

Based on the response to steroid treatment, 117 children were divided as groups of SSNS (82 cases), frequent relapse nephrotic syndrome (FRNS) (10 cases), and SRNS (25 cases). A total of 41 patients underwent kidney biopsy, 11 cases (13.4%) in SSNS, 7 cases (70.0%) in FRNS and 24 cases (96.0%) in SRNS. 30 cases were minimal change disease (MCD), 9 cases were mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (MsPGN) and 3 cases were focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). The levels of Leptin were significantly higher in SR patients (1208.1 ± 1044.1 pg/ml) compared to SS patients (515.4 ± 676.9 pg/ml) and controls (507.9 ± 479.8 pg/ml), regardless of the pathological type. CCL22 levels were significantly elevated in SRNS (92.2 ± 157.0 pg/ml), but the difference seemed to be attributed to the specific type of pathology, such as Minimal change disease (MCD) (127.4 ± 206.7 pg/ml) and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) (114.8 ± 22.0 pg/ml). For SRNS prediction, the AUC of Leptin, CCL22, and the joint prediction index were 0.764, 0.640, and 0.806, respectively.

Conclusion

Serum levels of CCL22 and Leptin, detected prior to steroid therapy, were associated with steroid resistance in childhood INS.

Integrated analyses of single-cell transcriptomics identify metastasis-associated myeloid subpopulations in breast cancer lung metastasis

Lung metastasis of breast cancer is closely associated with patient morbidity and mortality, which correlates with myeloid cells in the lung microenvironment. However, the heterogeneity and specificity of metastasis-associated myeloid cells have not been fully established in lung metastasis. Here, by integrating and analyzing single-cell transcriptomics, we found that myeloid subpopulations (Tppp3 ⁺ monocytes, Isg15 ⁺ macrophages, Ifit3 ⁺ neutrophils, and Il12b ⁺ DCs) play critical roles in the formation and development of the metastatic niche. Gene enrichment analyses indicate that several tumor-promoting pathways should be responsible for the process, including angiogenesis (Anxa1 and Anxa2 by Tppp3 ⁺ monocytes), immunosuppression (Isg15 and Cxcl10 by Isg15 ⁺ macrophages; Il12b and Ccl22 by Il12b ⁺ DCs), and tumor growth and metastasis (Isg15 and Isg20 by Ifit3 ⁺ neutrophils). Furthermore, we have validated these subpopulations in lung microenvironment of MMTV-PyVT transgenic mice and verified their association with poor progression of human breast cancer. Also, our results elucidated a crosstalk network among four myeloid subpopulations by cell-cell communication analysis. This study, therefore, highlights the crucial role of myeloid cells in lung metastasis and provides insights into underlying molecular mechanisms, which pave the way for therapeutic interventions in breast cancer metastasis to lung.

Spatial analysis of human lung cancer reveals organized immune hubs enriched for stem-like CD8 T cells and associated with immunotherapy response

The organization of immune cells in human tumors is not well understood. Immunogenic tumors harbor spatially-localized multicellular 'immunity hubs' defined by expression of the T cell-attracting chemokines CXCL10/CXCL11 and abundant T cells. Here, we examined immunity hubs in human pre-immunotherapy lung cancer specimens, and found that they were associated with beneficial responses to PD-1-blockade. Immunity hubs were enriched for many interferon-stimulated genes, T cells in multiple differentiation states, and CXCL9/10/11 + macrophages that preferentially interact with CD8 T cells. Critically, we discovered the stem-immunity hub, a subtype of immunity hub strongly associated with favorable PD-1-blockade outcomes, distinct from mature tertiary lymphoid structures, and enriched for stem-like TCF7+PD-1+ CD8 T cells and activated CCR7 + LAMP3 + dendritic cells, as well as chemokines that organize these cells. These results elucidate the spatial organization of the human intratumoral immune response and its relevance to patient immunotherapy outcomes.

Efficient Redirection of NK Cells by Genetic Modification with Chemokine Receptors CCR4 and CCR2B

Natural killer (NK) cells are a subset of lymphocytes that offer great potential for cancer immunotherapy due to their natural anti-tumor activity and the possibility to safely transplant cells from healthy donors to patients in a clinical setting. However, the efficacy of cell-based immunotherapies using both T and NK cells is often limited by a poor infiltration of immune cells into solid tumors. Importantly, regulatory immune cell subsets are frequently recruited to tumor sites. In this study, we overexpressed two chemokine receptors, CCR4 and CCR2B, that are naturally found on T regulatory cells and tumor-resident monocytes, respectively, on NK cells. Using the NK cell line NK-92 as well as primary NK cells from peripheral blood, we show that genetically engineered NK cells can be efficiently redirected using chemokine receptors from different immune cell lineages and migrate towards chemokines such as CCL22 or CCL2, without impairing the natural effector functions. This approach has the potential to enhance the therapeutic effect of immunotherapies in solid tumors by directing genetically engineered donor NK cells to tumor sites. As a future therapeutic option, the natural anti-tumor activity of NK cells at the tumor sites can be increased by co-expression of chemokine receptors with chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) or T cell receptors (TCR) on NK cells can be performed in the future.

PITX1 suppresses osteosarcoma metastasis through exosomal LINC00662-mediated M2 macrophage polarization

Paired-like homeodomain transcription factor 1 (PITX1) is frequently downregulated in cancers, including osteosarcoma (OS). However, its role in OS remains unknown. Therefore, we aimed to explore the functions and potential mechanisms of PITX1 in OS malignant progression. Elevated PITX1 suppressed OS cell proliferation and migration, based on transwell, proliferation, and colony formation assays. Pathway enrichment analysis of differentially-expressed genes between PITX1-overexpressing and control OS cells indicated that PITX1 expression was associated with the FAK/Src and PI3k/Akt signaling pathways. Mechanistically, ubiquitination assays and rescue experiments showed that PITX1 interacted with transcription factor STAT3, leading to decreased STAT3 transcriptional activity, which repressed the expression of LINC00662. Specific knockdown of LINC00662 reduced the tumor growth and invasion of OS cells induced by downregulated PITX1. Moreover, exosomal LINC00662, derived from PITX1 knockdown OS cell lines activated M2 macrophages in cell co-culture assays. M2 macrophage secreted several cytokines, among which CCL22 was found to cause OS cell EMT. Collectively, our data indicate that PITX1 suppresses OS cell proliferation and metastasis by downregulating LINC00662. Moreover, LINC00662 can be packaged into OS cell-derived exosomes to mediate M2 macrophage polarization to promote OS metastasis via CCL22.

The adaptor protein TRAF3 is an immune checkpoint that inhibits myeloid-derived suppressor cell expansion

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are aberrantly expanded in cancer patients and under other pathological conditions. These cells orchestrate the immunosuppressive and inflammatory network to facilitate cancer metastasis and mediate patient resistance to therapies, and thus are recognized as a prime therapeutic target of human cancers. Here we report the identification of the adaptor protein TRAF3 as a novel immune checkpoint that critically restrains MDSC expansion. We found that myeloid cell-specific Traf3-deficient (M-Traf3 ^-/-) mice exhibited MDSC hyperexpansion during chronic inflammation. Interestingly, MDSC hyperexpansion in M-Traf3 ^-/- mice led to accelerated growth and metastasis of transplanted tumors associated with an altered phenotype of T cells and NK cells. Using mixed bone marrow chimeras, we demonstrated that TRAF3 inhibited MDSC expansion via both cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic mechanisms. Furthermore, we elucidated a GM-CSF-STAT3-TRAF3-PTP1B signaling axis in MDSCs and a novel TLR4-TRAF3-CCL22-CCR4-G-CSF axis acting in inflammatory macrophages and monocytes that coordinately control MDSC expansion during chronic inflammation. Taken together, our findings provide novel insights into the complex regulatory mechanisms of MDSC expansion and open up unique perspectives for the design of new therapeutic strategies that aim to target MDSCs in cancer patients.

CCL17 and CCL22 chemokines are upregulated in human obesity and play a role in vascular dysfunction

Background/Aims

Chemokines are known to play critical roles mediating inflammation in many pathophysiological processes. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of chemokine receptor CCR4 and its ligands CCL17 and CCL22 in human morbid obesity.

Methods

Circulating levels of CCL17 and CCL22 were measured in 60 morbidly obese patients (mean age, 45 ± 1 years; body mass index/BMI, 44 ± 1 kg/m²) who had undergone bariatric bypass surgery, and 20 control subjects. Paired subcutaneous (SCAT) and visceral adipose tissue (VCAT) from patients were analysed to measure expression of CCR4 and its ligands by RT-PCR, western blot and immunohistochemical analysis. The effects of CCR4 neutralization ex vivo on leukocyte-endothelial cells were also evaluated.

Results

Compared with controls, morbidly obese patients presented higher circulating levels of CCL17 (p=0.029) and CCL22 (p<0.001) and this increase was positively correlated with BMI (p=0.013 and p=0.0016), and HOMA-IR Index (p=0.042 and p< 0.001). Upregulation of CCR4, CCL17 and CCL22 expression was detected in VCAT in comparison with SCAT (p<0.05). Using the parallel-plate flow chamber model, blockade of endothelial CCR4 function with the neutralizing antibody anti-CCR4 in morbidly obese patients significantly reduced leucocyte adhesiveness to dysfunctional endothelium, a key event in atherogenesis. Additionally, CCL17 and CCL22 increased activation of the ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathway in human aortic endothelial cells, which was significantly reduced by CCR4 inhibition (p=0.016 and p<0.05).

Conclusion

Based on these findings, pharmacological modulation of the CCR4 axis could represent a new therapeutic approach to prevent adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity.

CCL22 and CCL26 are potential biomarkers for predicting distant metastasis in thyroid carcinoma

OBJECTIVES

Chemokines have been suggested to play significant roles in the progression of malignant cancers. This study aimed to identify the chemokines related to malignant progression in thyroid carcinoma.

METHODS

The mRNA expression levels of 52 chemokines were compared between differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) samples and normal thyroid tissues from The Cancer Genome Atlas database; survival analysis was then performed on the basis of differentially expressed chemokines. A retrospective study was conducted on the level of differentially expressed chemokines in 76 DTC patients. Functional pathway analysis was performed to explore chemokine-related regulatory mechanisms.

RESULTS

We identified 20 chemokines with differentially expressed mRNA levels through publicly available data. High levels of CCL22 and CCL26 were found to be related with metastasis in clinical DTC samples. High levels of CCL22 were found to be significantly related to poor prognosis in DTC patients. Pathway analyses revealed that cytokines might affect cancer progression through cytokine-cytokine receptor and cytokine-interleukin interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

CCL22 and CCL26 could serve as prognostic biomarkers in thyroid carcinoma.

The CC ligand chemokine family members CCL17/CCL22 predict the survival and response to immune checkpoint blockade therapy of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is considered an immunosuppressive malignancy. Cross-talk between cancer cells and immune cells is modulated in part by CC ligand (CCL) chemokines, having a major effect on tumor progression. However, the predictive value and function of CCL family members in HNSCC have not been elucidated. Here, the predictive value of CCL members in cancer prognosis and Immune checkpoint blockade therapy response was investigated. CCL17 and CCL22 were screened as the key CCL chemokines in HNSCC through co-expression analysis. Further, the correlation between CCL17/CCL22 expression and cancer immune infiltration were evaluated based on TIMER and were validated by a set of scRNA-seq data. Moreover, the expression level of CCL17/CCL22 we evaluated to predict the response to Immune checkpoint blockade therapy in a panel of cancer types by using the TIDE database. Results indicated that CCL17/CCL22 had a high co-expression correlation and had a marginally statistical significance with the overall survival in HNSCC patients (P value = 0.057 and 0.055, respectively). Our findings showed high expression of CCL17/CCL22 was positively correlated with CD4⁺ T cell infiltration levels in HNSCCs and activate mTORC1 signaling pathway in CD4⁺ T cells. Further analysis from TIDE showed the high expression of CCL17/CCL22 might predict favorable responses to immune checkpoint blockade therapy in HNSCC patients. These findings provide an insight into the predictive roles of CCL17/CCL22 in HNSCC.

Engineered nanomaterials trigger abscopal effect in immunotherapy of metastatic cancers

Despite advances in cancer treatment, metastatic cancer is still the main cause of death in cancer patients. At present, the treatment of metastatic cancer is limited to palliative care. The abscopal effect is a rare phenomenon in which shrinkage of metastatic tumors occurs simultaneously with the shrinkage of a tumor receiving localized treatment, such as local radiotherapy or immunotherapy. Immunotherapy shows promise for cancer treatment, but it also leads to consequences such as low responsiveness and immune-related adverse events. As a promising target-based approach, intravenous or intratumoral injection of nanomaterials provides new opportunities for improving cancer immunotherapy. Chemically modified nanomaterials may be able to trigger the abscopal effect by regulating immune cells. This review discusses the use of nanomaterials in killing metastatic tumor cells through the regulation of immune cells and the prospects of such nanomaterials for clinical use.

Tumor microenvironment antigens

The identification and characterization of tumor antigens are central objectives in developing anti-cancer immunotherapy. Traditionally, tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) are considered relatively restricted to tumor cells (i.e., overexpressed proteins in tumor cells), whereas tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) are considered unique to tumor cells. Recent studies have focused on identifying patient-specific neoantigens, which might be highly immunogenic because they are not expressed in normal tissues. The opposite strategy has emerged with the discovery of anti-regulatory T cells (anti-Tregs) that recognize and attack many cell types in the tumor microenvironment, such as regulatory immune cells, in addition to tumor cells. The term proposed in this review is "tumor microenvironment antigens" (TMAs) to describe the antigens that draw this attack. As therapeutic targets, TMAs offer several advantages that differentiate them from more traditional tumor antigens. Targeting TMAs leads not only to a direct attack on tumor cells but also to modulation of the tumor microenvironment, rendering it immunocompetent and tumor-hostile. Of note, in contrast to TAAs and TSAs, TMAs also are expressed in non-transformed cells with consistent human leukocyte antigen (HLA) expression. Inflammation often induces HLA expression in malignant cells, so that targeting TMAs could additionally affect tumors with no or very low levels of surface HLA expression. This review defines the characteristics, differences, and advantages of TMAs compared with traditional tumor antigens and discusses the use of these antigens in immune modulatory vaccines as an attractive approach to immunotherapy. Different TMAs are expressed by different cells and could be combined in anti-cancer immunotherapies to attack tumor cells directly and modulate local immune cells to create a tumor-hostile microenvironment and inhibit tumor angiogenesis. Immune modulatory vaccines offer an approach for combinatorial therapy with additional immunotherapy including checkpoint blockade, cellular therapy, or traditional cancer vaccines. These combinations would increase the number of patients who can benefit from such therapeutic measures, which all have optimal efficiency in inflamed tumors.

Tumor-associated macrophage (TAM)-derived CCL22 induces FAK addiction in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC)

Tumor cell dependence on activated oncogenes is considered a therapeutic target, but protumorigenic microenvironment-mediated cellular addiction to specific oncogenic signaling molecules remains to be further defined. Here, we showed that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) produced an abundance of C-C motif chemokine 22 (CCL22), whose expression in the tumor stroma was positively associated with the level of intratumoral phospho-focal adhesion kinase (pFAK Tyr³⁹⁷), tumor metastasis and reduced patient survival. Functionally, CCL22-stimulated hyperactivation of FAK was correlated with increased malignant progression of cancer cells. CCL22-induced addiction to FAK was demonstrated by the persistent suppression of tumor progression upon FAK-specific inhibition. Mechanistically, we identified that diacylglycerol kinase α (DGKα) acted as a signaling adaptor to link the CCL22 receptor C-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) and FAK and promoted CCL22-induced activation of the FAK/AKT pathway. CCL22/CCR4 signaling activated the intracellular Ca²⁺/phospholipase C-γ1 (PLC-γ1) axis to stimulate the phosphorylation of DGKα at a tyrosine residue (Tyr³³⁵) and promoted the translocation of DGKα to the plasma membrane to assemble the DGKα/FAK signalosome, which critically contributed to regulating sensitivity to FAK inhibitors in cancer cells. The identification of TAM-driven intratumoral FAK addiction provides opportunities for utilizing the tumor-promoting microenvironment to achieve striking anticancer effects.

Use of Circular RNAs in Diagnosis, Prognosis and Therapeutics of Renal Cell Carcinoma

Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type of kidney cancer, representing 90% of kidney cancer diagnoses, and the deadliest urological cancer. While the incidence and mortality rates by renal cell carcinoma are higher in men compared to women, in both sexes the clinical characteristics are the same, and usually unspecific, thereby hindering and delaying the diagnostic process and increasing the metastatic potential. Regarding treatment, surgical resection remains the main therapeutic strategy. However, even after radical nephrectomy, metastasis may still occur in some patients, with most metastatic renal cell carcinomas being resistant to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Therefore, the identification of new biomarkers to help clinicians in the early detection, and treatment of renal cell carcinoma is essential. In this review, we describe circRNAs related to renal cell carcinoma processes reported to date and propose the use of some in therapeutic strategies for renal cell carcinoma treatment.

CCL22 mutations drive natural killer cell lymphoproliferative disease by deregulating microenvironmental crosstalk

Chronic lymphoproliferative disorder of natural killer cells (CLPD-NK) is characterized by clonal expansion of natural killer (NK) cells where the underlying genetic mechanisms are incompletely understood. In the present study, we report somatic mutations in the chemokine gene CCL22 as the hallmark of a distinct subset of CLPD-NK. CCL22 mutations were enriched at highly conserved residues, mutually exclusive of STAT3 mutations and associated with gene expression programs that resembled normal CD16^dim/CD56^bright NK cells. Mechanistically, the mutations resulted in ligand-biased chemokine receptor signaling, with decreased internalization of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) for CCL22, CCR4, via impaired β-arrestin recruitment. This resulted in increased cell chemotaxis in vitro, bidirectional crosstalk with the hematopoietic microenvironment and enhanced NK cell proliferation in vivo in transgenic human IL-15 mice. Somatic CCL22 mutations illustrate a unique mechanism of tumor formation in which gain-of-function chemokine mutations promote tumorigenesis by biased GPCR signaling and dysregulation of microenvironmental crosstalk.

A Novel Immune-Associated Gene Signature for Overall Survival Prediction in Patients with Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Objective

To explore a novel Immune-associated gene signature for overall survival (OS) in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC).

Methods

Expression profiles of genes and corresponding clinical materials of OSCC patients were obtained through the TCGA database. With a LASSO Cox regression model, a multigene signature was established to predict the OS of OSCC patients. Some molecular experiments including RNA interference, MTT, and Transwell assay were applied to verify the role of the risk gene FGF9 in OSCC.

Results

43 immune-related prognostic DEGs were identified in OSCC. A 17-gene signature was established to assign the patients to either a high-risk group (HG) or a low-risk group (LG). The HG presented a shorter OS than the LG (P < 0.05). According to multivariate Cox regression analyses, the risk score was considered an independent factor for OS prediction (training set: HR = 3.485, 95% CI = 2.037-5.961, P < 0.001; test set: HR = 4.531, 95% CI = 2.120-9.682, P < 0.001). ROC curve-based analysis revealed the signature's ability for prediction. According to functional analysis, the immune cell expression and immune function of the HG were significantly inhibited. After knocking down the high-risk gene FGF9, the migration, proliferation, and invasion capabilities of OSCC cells HSC6 were significantly suppressed (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

A novel immune-associated gene signature was identified for predicting the prognosis of OSCC. These risk genes show great potential as targets for OSCC treatment.

A Novel Inflammatory Response–Related Gene Signature Improves High-Risk Survival Prediction in Patients With Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Background: Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a highly prevalent and malignant tumor that is difficult to effectively prognosticate outcomes. Recent reports have suggested that inflammation is strongly related to tumor progression, and several biomarkers linked to inflammation have been demonstrated to be useful for making a prognosis. The goal of this research was to explore the relevance between the inflammatory-related genes and HNSCC prognosis.

Methods: The clinical information and gene expression data of patients with HNSCC were acquired from publicly available data sources. A multigene prognostic signature model was constructed in The Cancer Genome Atlas and verified in the Gene Expression Omnibus database. According to the risk score calculated for each patient, they were divided into low- and high-risk groups based on the median. The Kaplan–Meier survival curve and receiver operating characteristic curve were applied to determine the prognostic value of the risk model. Further analysis identified the independent prognostic factors, and a prognostic nomogram was built. The relationship between tumor immune infiltration status and risk scores was investigated using Spearman correlation analysis. Finally, to confirm the expression of genes in HNSCC, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was performed.

Results: A prognostic model consisting of 14 inflammatory-related genes was constructed. The samples with a high risk had an apparently shorter overall survival than those with a low risk. Independent prognostic analysis found that risk scores were a separate prognostic factor in HNSCC patients. Immune infiltration analysis suggested that the abundance of B cells, CD8 T cells, M2 macrophages, myeloid dendritic cells, and monocytes in the low-risk group was higher, while that of M0, M1 macrophages, and resting NK cells was obviously higher in the high-risk group. The risk scores were related to chemotherapeutic sensitivity and the expression of several immune checkpoint genes. Moreover, CCL22 and IL10 were significantly higher in HNSCC tissues, as determined by qRT-PCR.

Conclusion: Taken together, we constructed a novel inflammatory response–related gene signature, which may be used to estimate outcomes for patients with HNSCC and may be developed into a powerful tool for forecasting the efficacy of immunotherapeutic and chemotherapeutic drugs for HNSCC.

CCR4 is a prognostic biomarker and correlated with immune infiltrates in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Background

Increased evidence has indicated that the tumour microenvironment plays an essential in the development, treatment and prognosis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSC). Recent studies have indicated CC chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) plays an essential role in tumor invasion and other adverse biological behavior. This study used data from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database to explore the role of CCR4 in HNSC and its clinical significance.

Methods

The gene expression and clinical data of HNSC patients in the TCGA database were extracted. Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) was used to analyze the expression of CCR4 in tumor and non-tumor tissue. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to analyze the relationship between CCR4 expression and overall survival rate (OS), disease-specific survival (DSS), and progression-free interval (PFI) in HNSC. A logistic regression model was used to analyze the relationships between various clinical factors and CCR4 expression. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was used to explore the potential role of CCR4 in HNSC. Additionally, we explored the relationship between CCR4 and immune infiltration.

Results

The expression of CCR4 in HNSC was not significantly different from that in normal tissue. The expression level of CCR4 in wild-type TP53 was higher than that in mutant TP53. Cox regression analysis showed the expression level of CCR4 was related to the patient's tumor grade and Tumor-Node-Metastasis (TNM) stage. CCR4 expression level is an independent prognostic factor. CCR4 is positively correlated with immune infiltration and immune checkpoints expression levels. The results of GSEA revealed that the high CCR4 expression group genes were enriched in allograft rejection, inflammatory response, IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signaling, interferon gamma response, and KRAS signaling up. Low CCR4 expression group genes were enriched in oxidative phosphorylation, MYC targets v1, DNA repair, reactive oxygen species pathway, and P53 pathway. Further, our study indicated CCR4 can also predict the prognosis of radiotherapy patients.

Conclusions

Our study found that CCR4 was a prognostic marker related to HNSC immune infiltration, and patients with high expression of CCR4 had a better prognosis.

Potential role of tumor-associated macrophages and CD163/CD68 ratio in mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome in correlation with serum sCD163 and CCL22

Currently, there are no curative treatment options for mycosis fungoides (MF) and Sézary syndrome (SS) other than stem cell transplant. Understanding the interplay between tumor cells and tumor microenvironment could aid in the development of new therapies. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) mostly have M2 phenotype that promotes tumor progression. This study investigated CD68+ and CD163+ TAMs as well as CD163/CD68 ratio in skin lesions from different stages of MF, large-plaque parapsoriasis, and SS. Moreover, we analyzed serum levels of sCD163 and CCL22 in correlation with TAMs count and CD163/CD68 ratio. CD68+ and CD163+ TAMs count significantly increased as the disease progressed. CD163/CD68 ratio was highest at MF tumor stage and SS indicating M2 polarization with disease progression. Significant positive correlations were detected between serum levels of sCD163 and CCL22 and CD68+ and CD163+ TAMs count and CD163/CD68 ratio. We concluded that TAMs play an important role in MF progression. High CD163/CD68 ratio in tumor stage MF and SS indicates M2 polarization of TAMs with tumor progression. CD163/CD68 ratio should be considered in assessing TAMs rather than total TAMs count. Also, sCD163 and CCL22 serum levels reflect M2 load and thus could be used as markers to assess disease progression.

The Epithelial-Stromal Microenvironment in Early Colonic Neoplasia

Stromal cells play a central role in promoting the progression of colorectal cancer. Here, we analyze molecular changes within the epithelial and stromal compartments of dysplastic aberrant crypt foci (ACF) formed in the ascending colon, where rapidly developing interval cancers occur. We found strong activation of numerous neutrophil/monocyte chemokines, consistent with localized inflammation. The data also indicated a decrease in interferon signaling and cell-based immunity. The immune checkpoint and T-cell exhaustion gene PDCD1 was one of the most significantly upregulated genes, which was accompanied by a decrease in cytotoxic T-cell effector gene expression. In addition, CDKN2A expression was strongly upregulated in the stroma and downregulated in the epithelium, consistent with diverse changes in senescence-associated signaling on the two tissue compartments. IMPLICATIONS: Decreased CD8 T-cell infiltration within proximal colon ACF occurs within the context of a robust inflammatory response and potential stromal cell senescence, thus providing new insight into potential promotional drivers for tumors in the proximal colon.

Downregulation of CCL22 and mutated NOTCH1 in tongue and mouth floor squamous cell carcinoma results in decreased Th2 cell recruitment and expression, predicting poor clinical outcome

OBJECTIVE

Tongue and mouth floor squamous cell carcinoma (T/MF SCC) exhibits a high rate of local recurrence and cervical lymph node metastasis. The effect of the tumor microenvironment on T/MF SCC remains unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Transcriptome and somatic mutation data of patients with T/MF SCC were obtained from HNSC projects of the Cancer Genome Atlas. Immune infiltration quantification in early- (clinical stage I-II) and advanced-stage (clinical stage III-IV) T/MF SCC was performed using single sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis and MCPcounter. Differentially expressed gene data were filtered, and their function was assessed through Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses. Kaplan-Meier survival curve analysis and Cox regression model were conducted to evaluate the survival of patients with the CCL22 signature. Maftools was used to present the overview of somatic mutations.

RESULTS

In T/MF SCC, T helper (Th)2 cell counts were significantly increased in patients with early-stage disease compared to those with advanced-stage disease. Expression of the Th2 cell-related chemokine, CCL22, was downregulated in patients with advanced-stage T/MF SCC. Univariate and multivariate Cox analyses revealed that CCL22 was a good prognostic factor in T/MF SCC. A nomogram based on the expression of CCL22 was constructed to serve as a prognostic indicator for T/MF SCC. NOTCH1 mutations were found at a higher rate in patients with advanced-stage T/MF SCC than in those with early-stage T/MF SCC, resulting in the inhibition of the activation of the NOTCH1-Th2 cell differentiation pathway. The expression levels of CCL22, GATA-3, and IL4 were higher in patients with early-stage T/MF SCC than in those with advanced-stage T/MF SCC.

CONCLUSION

In T/MF SCC, high expression of CCL22 may promote the recruitment of Th2 cells and help predict a better survival. Mutations in NOTCH1 inhibit the differentiation of Th2 cells, facilitating tumor progression through a decrease in Th2 cell recruitment and differentiation.

Inhibition of WHSC1 Allows for Reprogramming of the Immune Compartment in Prostate Cancer

Immunotherapy initially demonstrated promising results in prostate cancer (PCa), but the modest or negative results of many recent trials highlight the need to overcome the poor immunogenicity of this cancer. The design of effective therapies for PCa is challenged by the limited understanding of the interface between PCa cells and the immune system in mediating therapeutic resistance. Prompted by our recent observations that elevated WHSC1, a histone methyltransferase known to promote progression of numerous cancers, can silence antigen processing and presentation in PCa, we performed a single-cell analysis of the intratumoral immune dynamics following in vivo pharmacological inhibition of WHSC1 in mice grafted with TRAMP C2 cells. We observed an increase in cytotoxic T and NK cells accumulation and effector function, accompanied by a parallel remodeling of the myeloid compartment, as well as abundant shifts in key ligand–receptor signaling pathways highlighting changes in cell-to-cell communication driven by WHSC1 inhibition. This comprehensive profiling of both immune and molecular changes during the course of WHSC1 blockade deepens our fundamental understanding of how anti-tumor immune responses develop and can be enhanced therapeutically for PCa.

Dendritic Cells: Behind the Scenes of T-Cell Infiltration into the Tumor Microenvironment

Tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells have been shown to play a crucial role in controlling tumor progression. However, the recruitment and activation of these immune cells at the tumor site are strictly dependent on several factors, including the presence of dendritic cells (DCs), the main orchestrators of the antitumor immune responses. Among the various DC subsets, the role of cDC1s has been demonstrated in several preclinical experimental mouse models. In addition, the high density of tumor-infiltrating cDC1s has been associated with improved survival in many cancer patients. The ability of cDC1s to modulate antitumor activity depends on their interaction with other immune populations, such as NK cells. This evidence has led to the development of new strategies aimed at increasing the abundance and activity of cDC1s in tumors, thus providing attractive new avenues to enhance antitumor immunity for both established and novel anticancer immunotherapies. In this review, we provide an overview of the various subsets of DCs, focusing in particular on the role of cDC1s, their ability to interact with other intratumoral immune cells, and their prognostic significance on solid tumors. Finally, we outline key therapeutic strategies that promote the immunogenic functions of DCs in cancer immunotherapy.

Rab GTPase Mediating Regulation of NALP3 in Colorectal Cancer

The NALP3 inflammasome signaling contributes to inflammation within tumor tissues. This inflammation may be promoted by the vesicle trafficking of inflammasome components and cytokines. Rab5, Rab7 and Rab11 regulate vesicle trafficking. However, the role of these proteins in the regulation of inflammasomes remains largely unknown. To elucidate the role of these Rab proteins in inflammasome regulation, HCT-116, a colorectal cancer (CRC) cell line expressing pDsRed-Rab5 wild type (WT), pDsRed-Rab5 dominant-negative (DN), pDsRed-Rab7 WT, pDsRed-Rab7 DN, pDsRed-Rab11 WT and pDsRed-Rab11 DN were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/nigericin. Inflammasome activation was analyzed by measuring the mRNA expression of NLRP3, Pro-CASP1, RAB39A and Pro-IL-1β, conducting immunofluorescence imaging and western blotting of caspase-1 and analysing the secretion levels of IL-1β using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The effects of Rabs on cytokine release were evaluated using MILLIPLEX MAP Human Cytokine/Chemokine Magnetic Bead Panel-Premixed 41 Plex. The findings showed that LPS/nigericin-treated cells expressing Rab5-WT indicated increased NALP3 expression and secretion of the IL-1β as compared to Rab5-DN cells. Caspase-1 was localized in the nucleus and cytosol of Rab5-WT cells but was localized in the cytosol in Rab5-DN cells. There were no any effects of Rab7 and Rab11 expression on the regulation of inflammasomes. Our results suggest that Rab5 may be a potential target for the regulation of NALP3 in the treatment of the CRC inflammation.

Functional Role of Dendritic Cell Subsets in Cancer Progression and Clinical Implications

Dendritic cells (DCs) constitute a complex network of cell subsets with common functions but also with many divergent aspects. All dendritic cell subsets share the ability to prime T cell response and to undergo a complex trafficking program related to their stage of maturation and function. For these reasons, dendritic cells are implicated in a large variety of both protective and detrimental immune responses, including a crucial role in promoting anti-tumor responses. Although cDC1s are the most potent subset in tumor antigen cross-presentation, they are not sufficient to induce full-strength anti-tumor cytotoxic T cell response and need close interaction and cooperativity with the other dendritic cell subsets, namely cDC2s and pDCs. This review will take into consideration different aspects of DC biology, including the functional role of dendritic cell subsets in both fostering and suppressing tumor growth, the mechanisms underlying their recruitment into the tumor microenvironment, as well as the prognostic value and the potentiality of dendritic cell therapeutic targeting. Understanding the specificity of dendritic cell subsets will allow to gain insights on role of these cells in pathological conditions and to design new selective promising therapeutic approaches.