Effects of glycopyrrolate on capsaicin-induced cough in normal volunteers treated with captopril

Muscarinic Receptor Antagonists

Parasympathetic activity is increased in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma and appears to be the major reversible component of airway obstruction. Therefore, treatment with muscarinic receptor antagonists is an effective bronchodilator therapy in COPD and also in asthmatic patients. In recent years, the accumulating evidence that the cholinergic system controls not only contraction by airway smooth muscle but also the functions of inflammatory cells and airway epithelial cells has suggested that muscarinic receptor antagonists could exert other effects that may be of clinical relevance when we must treat a patient suffering from COPD or asthma. There are currently six muscarinic receptor antagonists licenced for use in the treatment of COPD, the short-acting muscarinic receptor antagonists (SAMAs) ipratropium bromide and oxitropium bromide and the long-acting muscarinic receptor antagonists (LAMAs) aclidinium bromide, tiotropium bromide, glycopyrronium bromide and umeclidinium bromide. Concerns have been raised about possible associations of muscarinic receptor antagonists with cardiovascular safety, but the most advanced compounds seem to have an improved safety profile. Further beneficial effects of SAMAs and LAMAs are seen when added to existing treatments, including LABAs, inhaled corticosteroids and phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors. The importance of tiotropium bromide in the maintenance treatment of COPD, and likely in asthma, has spurred further research to identify new LAMAs. There are a number of molecules that are being identified, but only few have reached the clinical development.

Bronchodilator therapy for chronic cough

Experimental studies indicate that airway calibre increases the sensitivity of the afferents involved in the cough reflex but it has proved difficult to demonstrate that airway calibre increases the sensitivity of the afferents involved in the cough reflex. Therefore, bronchodilators might have a role, although rather minor, in the treatment of cough. However, although bronchodilators represent the standard of care in the treatment of airway obstruction associated with asthma or COPD, controversy persists regarding the mechanism(s) by which these agents alleviate cough. Furthermore, the available evidence indicates that the effects of bronchodilators on cough are rather inconsistent in humans and casts doubt on the appropriateness of the common practice of using bronchodilators in the treatment of patients with cough without any other evidence of airway obstruction. Regrettably, appropriate long-term trials specifically aimed at evaluating the clinical efficacy of bronchodilators in pathologic cough have not yet been performed. Therefore, properly executed clinical studies of bronchodilators in various types of acute and chronic pathologic cough are required.

Tiotropium modulates transient receptor potential V1 (TRPV1) in airway sensory nerves: A beneficial off-target effect?

Background

Recent studies have suggested that the long-acting muscarinic receptor antagonist tiotropium, a drug widely prescribed for its bronchodilator activity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma, improves symptoms and attenuates cough in preclinical and clinical tussive agent challenge studies. The mechanism by which tiotropium modifies tussive responses is not clear, but an inhibition of vagal tone and a consequent reduction in mucus production from submucosal glands and bronchodilation have been proposed.

Objective

The aim of this study was to investigate whether tiotropium can directly modulate airway sensory nerve activity and thereby the cough reflex.

Methods

We used a conscious cough model in guinea pigs, isolated vagal sensory nerve and isolated airway neuron tissue– and cell-based assays, and in vivo single-fiber recording electrophysiologic techniques.

Results

Inhaled tiotropium blocked cough and single C-fiber firing in the guinea pig to the transient receptor potential (TRP) V1 agonist capsaicin, a clinically relevant tussive stimulant. Tiotropium and ipratropium, a structurally similar muscarinic antagonist, inhibited capsaicin responses in isolated guinea pig vagal tissue, but glycopyrrolate and atropine did not. Tiotropium failed to modulate other TRP channel–mediated responses. Complementary data were generated in airway-specific primary ganglion neurons, demonstrating that tiotropium inhibited capsaicin-induced, but not TRPA1-induced, calcium movement and voltage changes.

Conclusion

For the first time, we have shown that tiotropium inhibits neuronal TRPV1-mediated effects through a mechanism unrelated to its anticholinergic activity. We speculate that some of the clinical benefit associated with taking tiotropium (eg, in symptom control) could be explained through this proposed mechanism of action.

Review: Effect of drugs on human cough reflex sensitivity to inhaled capsaicin

Capsaicin, the pungent extract of red peppers, has been used in clinical research for almost three decades. Capsaicin has gained favor as the provocative agent of choice to measure cough reflex sensitivity, as it induces cough in a safe, reproducible, and dose-dependent manner. One of the major uses of capsaicin cough challenge testing has been to evaluate the effect of a pharmacological intervention on the human cough reflex. The current review summarizes the published experience with capsaicin inhalation challenge in the evaluation of drug effects on cough reflex sensitivity. A notable contrast evident between studies demonstrating a drug effect (inhibition of cough reflex sensitivity) and those that do not, is the predominance of healthy volunteers as subjects in the latter. This observation suggests that subjects with pathological cough, rather than normal volunteers, comprise the optimal group in which to evaluate the effect of potential antitussive agents on human cough reflex sensitivity.

Safety of capsaicin cough challenge testing

BACKGROUND

Capsaicin, the pungent extract of red peppers, has achieved widespread use in clinical research because it induces cough in a dose-dependent and reproducible manner. Although > 2 decades of experience has led investigators to consider capsaicin cough challenge testing a safe diagnostic modality, this issue has not been specifically addressed in the literature.

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To review the published experience with capsaicin inhalation challenge testing in terms of safety.

DESIGN

Literature review and personal communication with study authors.

SETTING

Academic medical center.

RESULTS

One hundred twenty-two published studies since 1984 described 4,833 subjects (4,374 adults, 459 children) undergoing capsaicin cough challenge, with no serious adverse events reported. Subjects included healthy volunteers as well as patients with asthma, COPD, pathologic cough, and other respiratory conditions. Minor complaints described in a small fraction of studies consisted mainly of transient throat irritation. Personal communication with the authors of > 90% of the studies confirmed an absence of any serious adverse events. Furthermore, these investigators have performed thousands of additional capsaicin challenge studies not reported in the literature, also without any associated serious adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

A review of the 20-year clinical experience has failed to uncover a single serious adverse event associated with capsaicin cough challenge testing in humans. Given the need for better antitussive therapies, capsaicin represents a vital component of future scientific inquiry in the field of cough.

Cough, cough receptors, and asthma in children

This review discusses current general concepts on cough and the relationship between cough, cough receptor sensitivity, and asthma in children. It presents models of the relationship between cough and bronchoconstriction, and proposes a new model outlining the relationship between cough receptor sensitivity, airway hyperresponsiveness, and the clinical issues of cough, wheeze, and dyspnea in children with and without asthma. Cough is very common in children, with a prevalence of 15-20%. Those with non-specific cough (dry cough in the absence of identifiable respiratory illness) are often treated with a variety of drugs, in particular, medications for asthma and gastroesophageal reflux. However, there is little evidence to use these medications for the sole symptom of cough in children. Clinical studies on cough need to be interpreted in light of inherent methodological problems in studying cough. These methodological problems include the nonrepeatable nature of questions on cough, the unreliability of subjective measurements of cough, the lack of objective measurements to quantify cough severity, and the period effect (spontaneous resolution of cough). Although cough can be troublesome, cough serves as an important function for maintaining normal health of the respiratory system. The importance of cough in maintaining respiratory health is reflected in the development of lung atelactasis/collapse from retained secretions and recurrent pneumonia in clinical situations where the cough reflex is ineffective. The cough reflex is complex and still poorly understood. In this article the simplified cough pathway is presented and involves cough receptors, mediators of sensory nerves and the afferent pathway, the vagus nerve, the cough centre, efferent pathway, and cough effectors.