Structure activity relationship of four tetrahydrocannabinols and the pharmacological activity of five semi-purified extracts of Cannabis sativa

Research and Clinical Practice Involving the Use of Cannabis Products, with Emphasis on Cannabidiol: A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence supports cannabidiol (CBD) as a promising therapeutic compound for various health conditions, despite its approval as a medication (product for medical purposes) remaining restricted to a limited range of clinical indications. Simultaneously, the regulation of cannabis-derived products for medicinal and recreational use has expanded their global market availability to meet local community demands. This scenario presents a complex challenge for clinicians, researchers, and industry, as the global appeal of therapeutic uses of CBD is growing more rapidly than the scientific evidence supporting its safety and effectiveness.

OUTCOMES

A narrative review was conducted to discuss the best evidence regarding the pharmacological profile of CBD, its efficacy, and safety within the context of regulation and perspectives on the development of new cannabinoid-based drugs. Key articles addressing the various facets of this issue were selected for comprehensive analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians and researchers may face unique challenges in understanding the pharmacological profile of CBD and the prospects for developing its clinical indications, given the heterogeneity of clinical terminologies and the quality and composition of cannabis-based medical products available on the market. More basic and clinical research that complies with regulatory agencies' testing guidelines, such as good manufacturing practices (GMPs), good laboratory practices (GLPs), and good clinical practices (GCPs), is needed to obtain approval for CBD or any other cannabinoid as a therapeutic for broader clinical indications.

Cannabidiol: Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic in the context of neuropsychiatric disorders

In this chapter we explored the growing interest in cannabinoids, particularly cannabidiol (CBD), over the last two decades due to their potential therapeutic applications in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. CBD, a major non-psychotomimetic compound derived from Cannabis sativa, is highlighted as a safer alternative to other cannabinoids like Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Clinical trials have been investigating CBD formulations for conditions such as schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's diseases, and stress-related disorders. However, limited access to CBD-approved formulations primarily due to their high-cost and concerns about the quality of market-available products, challenges regulatory agencies globally. The pharmacokinetics of CBD, especially after oral administration, present challenges with erratic absorption and low bioavailability. CBD's "promiscuous" pharmacodynamics involve interactions with various targets beyond the endocannabinoid system, complicating precise dosing in therapeutic interventions. This chapter delves into CBD's dose-response curves, revealing complexities that pose challenges in clinical practice. Nanobiotechnology emerges as a promising solution, with recent developments showing improved bioavailability, stability, and reduced toxicity through nanoencapsulation of CBD. While this phytocannabinoid holds immense promise in neuropsychopharmacology, we provided a comprehensive overview of the current state of CBD research and suggests potential future directions regarding the pharmacology of CBD, harnessing the benefits of this intriguing compound.

Cannabidiol in anxiety disorders: Current and future perspectives

Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent psychiatric disorders, characterized by a chronic course and often accompanied by comorbid symptoms that impair functionality and decrease quality of life. Despite advances in basic and clinical research in our understanding of these disorders, currently available pharmacological options are associated with limited clinical benefits and side effects that frequently lead to treatment discontinuation. Importantly, a significant number of patients do not achieve remission and live with lifelong residual symptoms that limit daily functioning. Since the 1970s, basic and clinical research on cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychotomimetic compound found in the Cannabis sativa plant, has indicated relevant anxiolytic effects, garnering attention for its therapeutic potential as an option in anxiety disorder treatment. This chapter aims to review the history of these studies on the anxiolytic effects of CBD within the current understanding of anxiety disorders. It highlights the most compelling current evidence supporting its anxiolytic effects and explores future perspectives for its clinical use in anxiety disorders.

Beyond monoamines: I. Novel targets and radiotracers for Positron emission tomography imaging in psychiatric disorders

With the emergence of positron emission tomography (PET) in the late 1970s, psychiatry had access to a tool capable of non-invasive assessment of human brain function. Early applications in psychiatry focused on identifying characteristic brain blood flow and metabolic derangements using radiotracers such as [¹⁵ O]H₂ O and [¹⁸ F]FDG. Despite the success of these techniques, it became apparent that more specific probes were needed to understand the neurochemical bases of psychiatric disorders. The first neurochemical PET imaging probes targeted sites of action of neuroleptic (dopamine D₂ receptors) and psychoactive (serotonin receptors) drugs. Based on the centrality of monoamine dysfunction in psychiatric disorders and the measured success of monoamine-enhancing drugs in treating them, the next 30 years witnessed the development of an armamentarium of PET radiopharmaceuticals and imaging methodologies for studying monoamines. Continued development of monoamine-enhancing drugs over this time however was less successful, realizing only modest gains in efficacy and tolerability. As patent protection for many widely prescribed and profitable psychiatric drugs lapsed, drug development pipelines shifted away from monoamines in search of novel targets with the promises of improved efficacy, or abandoned altogether. Over this period, PET radiopharmaceutical development activities closely paralleled drug development priorities resulting in the development of new PET imaging agents for non-monoamine targets. Part one of this review will briefly survey novel PET imaging targets with relevance to the field of psychiatry, which include the metabotropic glutamate receptor type 5 (mGluR5), purinergic P₂ X₇ receptor, type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB₁ ), phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A), and describe radiotracers developed for these and other targets that have matured to human subject investigations. Current limitations of the targets and techniques will also be discussed.

Anandamide Concentration-Dependently Modulates Toll-Like Receptor 3 Agonism or UVB-Induced Inflammatory Response of Human Corneal Epithelial Cells

Photodamage-induced and viral keratitis could benefit from treatment with novel nonsteroid anti-inflammatory agents. Therefore, we determined whether human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs) express members of the endocannabinoid system (ECS), and examined how the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA, N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine) influences the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) agonism- or UVB irradiation-induced inflammatory response of these cells. Other than confirming the presence of cannabinoid receptors, we show that endocannabinoid synthesizing and catabolizing enzymes are also expressed in HCECs in vitro, as well as in the epithelial layer of the human cornea in situ, proving that they are one possible source of endocannabinoids. p(I:C) and UVB irradiation was effective in promoting the transcription and secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Surprisingly, when applied alone in 100 nM and 10 μM, AEA also resulted in increased pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Importantly, AEA further increased levels of these cytokines in the UVB model, whereas its lower concentration partially prevented the transcriptional effect of p(I:C), while not decreasing the p(I:C)-induced cytokine release. HCECs express the enzymatic machinery required to produce endocannabinoids both in vitro and in situ. Moreover, our data show that, despite earlier reports about the anti-inflammatory potential of AEA in murine cornea, its effects on the immune phenotype of human corneal epithelium may be more complex and context dependent.

Cannabinoids in Neurology - Position paper from Scientific Departments from Brazilian Academy of Neurology

Cannabinoids comprehend endocannabinoids, phytocannabinoids, and synthetic cannabinoids, with actions both in the central and peripherical nervous systems. A considerable amount of publications have been made in recent years, although cannabis has been known for over a thousand years. Scientific Departments from the Brazilian Academy of Neurology described evidence for medical use in their areas. Literature is constantly changing, and possible new evidence can emerge in the next days or months. Prescription of these substances must be discussed with patients and their families, with knowledge about adverse events and their efficacy.

Effects of Cannabinoid Agonists and Antagonists on Sleep in Laboratory Animals

The cannabinoids are a family of chemical compounds that can be either synthesized or naturally derived. These compounds have been shown to modulate a wide variety of biological processes. In this chapter, the studies detailing the effects of cannabinoids on sleep in laboratory animals are reviewed. Both exogenous and endogenous cannabinoids generally appear to decrease wakefulness and alter rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep in animal models. In addition, cannabinoids potentiate the effects of sedative-hypnotic drugs. However, the individual contributions of each cannabinoid on sleep processes is more nuanced and may depend on the site of action in the central nervous system. Many studies investigating the mechanism of cannabinoid effects on sleep suggest that the effects of cannabinoids on sleep are mediated via cannabinoid receptors; however, some evidence suggests that some sleep effects may be elicited via non-cannabinoid receptor-dependent mechanisms. More research is necessary to fully elucidate the role of each compound in modulating sleep processes.

Biochemical aspects and therapeutic mechanisms of cannabidiol in epilepsy

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disease characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Studies have shown the complexity of epileptogenesis and ictogenesis, in which immunological processes and epigenetic and structural changes in neuronal tissues have been identified as triggering epilepsy. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a major active component of the Cannabis plant and the source of CBD-enriched products for the treatment of epilepsy and associated diseases. In this review, we provide an up-to-date discussion on cellular and molecular mechanisms triggered during epilepsy crises, and the phytochemical characteristics of CBD that make it an attractive candidate for controlling rare syndromes, with excellent therapeutic properties. We also discuss possible CBD anticonvulsant mechanisms and molecular targets in neurodegenerative disorders and epilepsy. Based on these arguments, we conclude that CBD presents a biotecnological potential in the anticonvulsant process, including decreasing dependence on health care in hospitals, and could make the patient's life more stable, with regard to neurological conditions.

Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Toxicity and Validation of Cannabidiol on Brain Dopamine Levels: An Assessment on Cannabis Duplicity

Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) of cannabis is the main psychoactive component which is a global significant concern to human health. Evaluation on THC reported its drastic effect on the brain dopaminergic (DAergic) system stimulating mesolimbic DA containing neurons thereby increasing the level of striatal DA. Cannabidiol (CBD), with its anxiolytic and anti-psychotic property, is potent to ameliorate the THC-induced DAergic variations. Legal authorization of cannabis use and its analogs in most countries led to a drastic dispute in the elicitation of cannabis products. With a recent increase in cannabis-induced disorder rates, the present review highlighted the detrimental effects of THC and the effects of CBD on THC induced alterations in DA synthesis and release. Alongside the reported data, uses of cannabis as a therapeutic medium in a number of health complications are also being briefly reviewed. These evaluated reports led to an anticipation of additional research contradictory to the findings of THC and CBD activity in the brain DAergic system and their medical implementations as therapeutics.

The effects of cannabidiol on male reproductive system: A literature review

Cannabidiol (CBD) is one of the most abundant phytocannabinoids present in the plant Cannabis sativa (marijuana). There have been several studies of CBD in the last few decades, mainly focused on its neuroprotective properties, particularly after the identification of the endocannabinoid system and its participation in the central nervous system. On the other hand, the peripheral effects of CBD, particularly on reproductive physiology, were also evidenced. A narrative review was conducted using the PubMed database to identify studies that analyzed the pharmacological effects of CBD on the male reproductive system of vertebrates and invertebrates. Thirty-two citations (in vivo and in vitro) were identified. Among the vertebrates, the studies were carried out with men, monkeys, rats and mice. Studies with invertebrates are centered exclusively on the sea urchin. The CBD treatment periods include mostly acute and subacute evaluations. Exposure to CBD is associated with a reduction in mammalian testis size, the number of germ and Sertoli cells in spermatogenesis, fertilization rates, and plasma concentrations of hypothalamic, pituitary and gonadal hormones. Moreover, chronic doses of CBD have impaired sexual behavior in mice. From the studies identified in this review, it is possible to conclude that CBD has negative effects on the reproductive system of males. However, knowledge is still limited, and additional research is required to elucidate fully the mechanisms of action, as well as the reversibility of CBD effects on the reproductive system.

The dose-dependent psychomotor effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) in humans

BACKGROUND

Binding studies have demonstrated that levels of the cannabinoid receptor type-1 are highest in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, two areas critical for motor control. However, no studies have systematically examined the dose-related effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the primary cannabinoid receptor type-1 partial agonist in cannabis, on broad domains of psychomotor function in humans.

AIMS

Therefore, three domains of psychomotor function were assessed in former cannabis users (cannabis abstinent for a minimum of three months; n=23) in a three test-day, within-subject, double-blind, randomized, cross-over, and counterbalanced study during which they received intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (placebo, 0.015 mg/kg, and 0.03 mg/kg).

METHODS

Gross motor function was assessed via the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery Motor Screening Task, fine motor control via the Lafayette Instrument Grooved Pegboard task, and motor timing via a Paced Finger-Tapping Task. In addition, the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery Rapid Visual Processing Task was utilized to determine whether delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced motor deficits were confounded by disruptions in sustained attention.

RESULTS/OUTCOMES

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol resulted in robust dose-dependent deficits in fine motor control (Grooved Pegboard Task) and motor timing (Paced Finger-Tapping Task), while gross motor performance (Motor Screening Task) and sustained attention (Rapid Visual Processing Task) were unimpaired. Interestingly, despite the observed dose-dependent increases in motor impairment and blood levels of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, subjects reported similar levels of intoxication in the two drug conditions.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These data suggest that while several domains of motor function are disrupted by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, subjective feelings of intoxication are dissociable from cannabinoid-induced psychomotor effects. Results are discussed in terms of the potential neural mechanisms of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in motor structures.

Translational Investigation of the Therapeutic Potential of Cannabidiol (CBD): Toward a New Age

Background: Among the many cannabinoids in the cannabis plant, cannabidiol (CBD) is a compound that does not produce the typical subjective effects of marijuana. Objectives: The aim of the present review is to describe the main advances in the development of the experimental and clinical use of cannabidiol CBD in neuropsychiatry. Methods: A non-systematic search was performed for studies dealing with therapeutic applications of CBD, especially performed by Brazilian researchers. Results: CBD was shown to have anxiolytic, antipsychotic and neuroprotective properties. In addition, basic and clinical investigations on the effects of CBD have been carried out in the context of many other health conditions, including its potential use in epilepsy, substance abuse and dependence, schizophrenia, social phobia, post-traumatic stress, depression, bipolar disorder, sleep disorders, and Parkinson. Discussion: CBD is an useful and promising molecule that may help patients with a number of clinical conditions. Controlled clinical trials with different neuropsychiatric populations that are currently under investigation should bring important answers in the near future and support the translation of research findings to clinical settings.

Acute and chronic administration of cannabidiol increases mitochondrial complex and creatine kinase activity in the rat brain

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of cannabidiol (CBD) on mitochondrial complex and creatine kinase (CK) activity in the rat brain using spectrophotometry.

METHOD

Male adult Wistar rats were given intraperitoneal injections of vehicle or CBD (15, 30, or 60 mg/kg) in an acute (single dose) or chronic (once daily for 14 consecutive days) regimen. The activities of mitochondrial complexes and CK were measured in the hippocampus, striatum, and prefrontal cortex.

RESULTS

Both acute and chronic injection of CBD increased the activity of the mitochondrial complexes (I, II, II-III, and IV) and CK in the rat brain.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering that metabolism impairment is certainly involved in the pathophysiology of mood disorders, the modulation of energy metabolism (e.g., by increased mitochondrial complex and CK activity) by CBD could be an important mechanism implicated in the action of CBD.

Evaluation of the role of striatal cannabinoid CB1 receptors on movement activity of parkinsonian rats induced by reserpine

It has been observed cannabinoid CB1 receptor signalling and the levels of endocannabinoid ligands significantly increased in the basal ganglia and cerebrospinal fluids of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. These evidences suggest that the blocking of cannabinoid CB1 receptors might be beneficial to improve movement disorders as a sign of PD. In this study, a dose-response study of the effects of intrastriatal injection of a cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, AM251 and agonist, ACPA, on movement activity was performed by measuring the catalepsy of reserpinized and non-PD (normal) rats with bar test. Also the effect of co-administration the most effective dose of AM251 and several doses of ACPA were assessed. AM251 decreases the reserpine induced catalepsy in dose dependent manner and ACPA causes catalepsy in normal rats in dose dependant manner as well. AM251 significantly reverse the cataleptic effect in all three groups (1, 10, 100 ng/rat) that received ACPA. These results support this theory that cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonists might be useful to alleviate movement disorder in PD. Also continuance of ACPA induced catalepsy in rats after AM251 injection can indicate that other neurotransmitters or receptors interfere in ACPA induced catalepsy. Based on the present finding there is an incomplete overlapping between cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist and antagonist effects.

Cannabidiol: from an inactive cannabinoid to a drug with wide spectrum of action

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this review is to describe the historical development of research on cannabidiol. METHOD: This review was carried out on reports drawn from Medline, Web of Science and SciELO. DISCUSSION: After the elucidation of the chemical structure of cannabidiol in 1963, the initial studies showed that cannabidiol was unable to mimic the effects of Cannabis. In the 1970's the number of publications on cannabidiol reached a first peak, having the research focused mainly on the interaction with delta9-THC and its antiepileptic and sedative effects. The following two decades showed lower degree of interest, and the potential therapeutic properties of cannabidiol investigated were mainly the anxiolytic, antipsychotic and on motor diseases effects. The last five years have shown a remarkable increase in publications on cannabidiol mainly stimulated by the discovery of its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and neuroprotective effects. These studies have suggested a wide range of possible therapeutic effects of cannabidiol on several conditions, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, cerebral ischemia, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, other inflammatory diseases, nausea and cancer. CONCLUSION: In the last 45 years it has been possible to demonstrate that CBD has a wide range of pharmacological effects, many of which being of great therapeutic interest, but still waiting to be confirmed by clinical trials.

Effects of haloperidol on the behavioral, subjective, cognitive, motor, and neuroendocrine effects of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans

INTRODUCTION

Cannabinoids produce a spectrum of effects in humans including euphoria, cognitive impairments, psychotomimetic effects, and perceptual alterations. The extent to which dopaminergic systems contribute to the effects of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta-9-THC) remains unclear. This study evaluated whether pretreatment with a dopamine receptor antagonist altered the effects of Delta-9-THC in humans.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In a 2-test-day double-blind study, 28 subjects including healthy subjects (n = 17) and frequent users of cannabis (n = 11) were administered active (0.057 mg/kg) or placebo oral haloperidol in random order followed 90 and 215 min later by fixed order intravenous administration of placebo (vehicle) and active (0.0286 mg/kg) Delta-9-THC, respectively.

RESULTS

Consistent with previous reports, intravenous Delta-9-THC produced psychotomimetic effects, perceptual alterations, and subjective effects including "high." Delta-9-THC also impaired verbal recall and attention. Haloperidol pretreatment did not reduce any of the behavioral effects of Delta-9-THC. Haloperidol worsened the immediate free and delayed free and cued recall deficits produced by Delta-9-THC. Haloperidol and Delta-9-THC worsened distractibility and vigilance. Neither drug impaired performance on a motor screening task, the Stockings of Cambridge task, or the delayed match to sample task. Frequent users had lower baseline plasma prolactin levels and blunted Delta-9-THC induced memory impairments.

CONCLUSIONS

The deleterious effects of haloperidol pretreatment on the cognitive effects of Delta-9-THC are consistent with the preclinical literature in suggesting crosstalk between DAergic and CBergic systems. However, it is unlikely that DA D(2) receptor mechanisms play a major role in mediating the psychotomimetic and perceptual altering effects of Delta-9-THC. Further investigation is warranted to understand the basis of the psychotomimetic effects of Delta-9-THC and to better understand the crosstalk between DAergic and CBergic systems.

The acute effects of cannabinoids on memory in humans: a review

RATIONALE

Cannabis is one of the most frequently used substances. Cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids are known to impair several aspects of cognitive function, with the most robust effects on short-term episodic and working memory in humans. A large body of the work in this area occurred in the 1970s before the discovery of cannabinoid receptors. Recent advances in the knowledge of cannabinoid receptors' function have rekindled interest in examining effects of exogenous cannabinoids on memory and in understanding the mechanism of these effects.

OBJECTIVE

The literature about the acute effects of cannabinoids on memory tasks in humans is reviewed. The limitations of the human literature including issues of dose, route of administration, small sample sizes, sample selection, effects of other drug use, tolerance and dependence to cannabinoids, and the timing and sensitivity of psychological tests are discussed. Finally, the human literature is discussed against the backdrop of preclinical findings.

RESULTS

Acute administration of Delta-9-THC transiently impairs immediate and delayed free recall of information presented after, but not before, drug administration in a dose- and delay-dependent manner. In particular, cannabinoids increase intrusion errors. These effects are more robust with the inhaled and intravenous route and correspond to peak drug levels.

CONCLUSIONS

This profile of effects suggests that cannabinoids impair all stages of memory including encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Several mechanisms, including effects on long-term potentiation and long-term depression and the inhibition of neurotransmitter (GABA, glutamate, acetyl choline, dopamine) release, have been implicated in the amnestic effects of cannabinoids. Future research in humans is necessary to characterize the neuroanatomical and neurochemical basis of the memory impairing effects of cannabinoids, to dissect out their effects on the various stages of memory and to bridge the expanding gap between the humans and preclinical literature.

Cannabidiol monotherapy for treatment-resistant schizophrenia

Cannabidiol (CBD), one of the major products of the marijuana plant, is devoid of marijuana's typical psychological effects. In contrast, potential antipsychotic efficacy has been suggested based on preclinical and clinical data (Zuardi et al., 2002). In this report, we further investigated the efficacy and safety of CBD monotherapy in three patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS). This was an in-patient study. All patients were given placebo for the initial 5 days, and from the 6th to 35th day (inclusive) they received CBD (initial oral dose of 40 mg reaching 1280 mg/day). On the 36th day, CBD treatment was discontinued and replaced by placebo for 5 days, which was subsequently switched to olanzapine for over 15 days. Efficacy, tolerability and side effects were assessed. One patient showed mild improvement, but two patients didn't show any improvement during CBD monotherapy. All patients tolerated CBD very well and no side effects were reported. These preliminary data suggest that CBD monotherapy may not be effective for TRS.

Cannabidiol, a Cannabis sativa constituent, as an antipsychotic drug

A high dose of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the main Cannabis sativa (cannabis) component, induces anxiety and psychotic-like symptoms in healthy volunteers. These effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol are significantly reduced by cannabidiol (CBD), a cannabis constituent which is devoid of the typical effects of the plant. This observation led us to suspect that CBD could have anxiolytic and/or antipsychotic actions. Studies in animal models and in healthy volunteers clearly suggest an anxiolytic-like effect of CBD. The antipsychotic-like properties of CBD have been investigated in animal models using behavioral and neurochemical techniques which suggested that CBD has a pharmacological profile similar to that of atypical antipsychotic drugs. The results of two studies on healthy volunteers using perception of binocular depth inversion and ketamine-induced psychotic symptoms supported the proposal of the antipsychotic-like properties of CBD. In addition, open case reports of schizophrenic patients treated with CBD and a preliminary report of a controlled clinical trial comparing CBD with an atypical antipsychotic drug have confirmed that this cannabinoid can be a safe and well-tolerated alternative treatment for schizophrenia. Future studies of CBD in other psychotic conditions such as bipolar disorder and comparative studies of its antipsychotic effects with those produced by clozapine in schizophrenic patients are clearly indicated.

Dose and behavioral context dependent inhibition of movement and basal ganglia neural activity by ??9-tetrahydrocannabinol during spontaneous and treadmill locomotion tasks in rats

The effects of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinole (Delta-9-THC) on locomotor activities and related basal ganglia neural responses were investigated in rats. A multiple-channel, single unit recording method was used to record neuronal activity in the dorsal lateral striatum, the globus pallidus, the subthalamic nucleus, and the substantia nigra pars reticulata simultaneously during spontaneous movement and treadmill locomotion. Delta-9-THC treatment (0.05-2.0 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently decreased spontaneous motor activity and altered walking patterns in treadmill locomotion in that stance time was increased and step number was decreased. In parallel with the behavioral effects, Delta-9-THC treatment inhibited neural activity across all four basal ganglia areas recorded during both motor tests. Further, this inhibition of basal ganglia neural activity was behavioral context-dependent. Greater inhibition was found during resting than during walking periods in the treadmill locomotion test. Delta-9-THC treatment also changed firing patterns in the striatum and globus pallidus. More neurons in these regions discharged in an oscillatory pattern during treadmill walking with Delta-9-THC, and the oscillatory frequency was similar to that of the step cycle. Synchronized firing patterns were found in few basal ganglia neurons in the control condition (approximately 1%). Synchronized firing patterns increased during the treadmill resting phase after Delta-9-THC treatment, but still represented a very small proportion of the total neural population (1.9%). The drug treatment did not change neural responses to the tone cue proceeding treadmill locomotion. This study demonstrates dose-dependent inhibitory effects of cannabinoid injection on motor activity. This effect may be related to the behavioral context-dependent inhibition observed in the basal ganglia system where CB1 receptors are densely distributed.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA expression in rat central amygdala in cannabinoid tolerance and withdrawal: evidence for an allostatic shift?

Chronic treatment with cannabinoid agonists leads to tolerance. One possible mechanism for this is receptor internalization, but tolerance has also been reported with compounds that only cause internalization to a low degree. Furthermore, cannabinoid antagonist administration precipitates a characteristic withdrawal syndrome in tolerant subjects, accompanied by neuronal activation and enhanced release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in the central amygdala. The underlying molecular mechanisms are unknown. We examined the role of cannabinoid tolerance and withdrawal for the expression of the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor and of CRH in rats. Tolerance was first established functionally. An acute dose (100 microg/kg) of the CB1 agonist HU-210 suppressed locomotor activity, and had an anxiogenic-like effect on the elevated plus-maze. Both effects were absent following daily treatment with the same agonist or a lower (40 microg/kg) dose for 14 days. Next, withdrawal was reliably precipitated by a single dose (3 mg/kg) of the CB1 antagonist SR141716A in rats treated subchronically with 14-day HU-210. Using in situ hybridization, a robust suppression of CB1 mRNA expression was found in the caudate-putamen, indicating a downregulation of CB1 expression levels as one mechanism for tolerance to the locomotor suppressant effects of HU-210. The CRH transcript was upregulated in the central amygdala in precipitated withdrawal compared to nonwithdrawn tolerant subjects, suggesting that increased gene expression contributes to the previously reported CRH release in withdrawal. Most importantly, this increase occurred from a suppressed level in tolerant subjects, and behavioral signs of withdrawal, presumably mediated by CRH, were seen at the CRH expression that had only returned to normal nontolerant levels. This suggests the possibility of an allostatic shift, as previously proposed on theoretical grounds. The expression of CRH-R1, CRH-R2alpha, NPY, and its Y1 receptor mRNA was analyzed in search of neural substrates for the allostatic shift observed, but did not seem to contribute to the dysregulated state.

The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR 141716A reverses the antiemetic and motor depressant actions of WIN 55, 212-2

The dibenzopyran cannabinoids (delta-9 (Delta9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and nabilone) are clinically used to suppress nausea and vomiting produced by chemotherapeutic agents such as cisplatin. The purpose of this investigation was to investigate the antiemetic potential of the aminoalkylindole cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55, 212-2 [R(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(morpholinyl) methyl] pyrolol [1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-yl]-(1-naphthalenyl) methanone mesylate] against cisplatin-induced vomiting. Different doses of WIN 55, 212-2 (0, 1, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced both the frequency of cisplatin (20 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced emesis (ID(50)=0.5 mg/kg) as well as the percentage of shrews vomiting (ID50=1.2 mg/kg) in a dose-dependent manner. Significant reductions in emesis frequency occurred from 2.5 mg/kg dose of WIN 55, 212-2, whereas significant total protection from vomiting was afforded at its 5 mg/kg dose. The antiemetic actions of a 5-mg/kg dose of WIN 55, 212-2 against cisplatin (20 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced vomiting were reversed by nonemetic subcutaneous doses (0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1 mg/kg) of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist SR 141716A [N-piperidino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methylpyrazole-3-carboxamide] (ID50=0.27 and 0.47 mg/kg, respectively) but not by a 5-mg/kg dose of the cannabinoid CB2 receptor antagonist SR 144528 [N-[(1S)-endo-1,3,3-trimethylbicyclo [2.2.1] heptan-2-yl]5-(4-chloro-3-methylphenyl)-1-(4-methybenzyl) pyrazole-3-carboxamide]. The effects of the cited doses of WIN 55, 212-2 were also investigated on several motor parameters (spontaneous locomotor activity, duration of movement and rearing frequency). Significant reductions in motor parameters were only observed at its highest tested dose (ID50=1.97, 2.75 and 2.8 mg/kg; respectively). SR 141716A (0, 0.5, 1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) also reversed the motor suppressant effects of a 5-mg/kg dose of WIN 55, 212-2 (ID50=0.39, 0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg, respectively) and significant reversals were seen from its 0.5 and 1 mg/kg doses. These results suggest that WIN 55, 212-2 reduces both emesis and indeces of locomotion via the stimulation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors. However, cannabinoid CB1 receptors in different loci are most likely responsible for the antiemetic and motor suppressive effects of WIN 55, 212-2 since reduction in the frequency of vomiting occurred at lower doses relative to its sedative actions.

Endogenous cannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, attenuates naloxone-precipitated withdrawal signs in morphine-dependent mice

In the present study, we examined the effects of endogenous ligand 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) on naloxone-precipitated withdrawal in morphine-dependent mice, in comparison with that of two cannabinoid agonists, an ingredient of Cannabis sativa Delta(8)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(8)-THC) and the synthetic cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist HU-210. 2-AG at a dose of 10 microg per mouse (i.c.v.) significantly inhibited both jumping and forepaw tremor as signs of withdrawal following naloxone challenge in morphine-dependent mice. Furthermore, both Delta(8)-THC and HU-210 significantly attenuated these symptoms of withdrawal in morphine-dependent mice. Therefore, it is suggested that inactivation of the endogenous cannabinoid system is related to the induction of withdrawal syndrome in morphine-dependent mice. Moreover, hyperlocomotor activity in morphine-dependent mice was markedly increased by Delta(8)-THC 10 mg/kg, which had no effect in naive mice. This finding suggested that in morphine dependence, upregulation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors occurred. Non-psychoactive CB1 receptor agonists or accelerators of endocannabinoid synthesis may be potential as therapeutic drugs for opiate withdrawal symptoms.

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol differentially suppresses cisplatin-induced emesis and indices of motor function via cannabinoid CB(1) receptors in the least shrew

We have recently shown that the cannabinoid CB(1) receptor antagonist, SR 141716A, produces emesis in the least shrew (Cryptotis parva) in a dose- and route-dependent manner. This effect was blocked by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(9)-THC). The present study investigates the cannabinoid receptor mechanisms by which Delta(9)-THC produces its antiemetic effects against cisplatin (20 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced emesis as well as its cannabimimetic activity profile (motor reduction) in the least shrew. Intraperitoneal administration of Delta(9)-THC (1, 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg) dose-dependently reduced both the percentage of animals vomiting (ID(50)=1.8+/-1.6 mg/kg) and the frequency of vomits (ID(50)=0.36+/-1.18 mg/kg) in a potent manner. The lowest significantly effective antiemetic dose of Delta(9)-THC for the latter emesis parameters was 2.5 mg/kg. Although Delta(9)-THC reduced the frequency of vomits up to 98%, it failed to completely protect all tested shrews from vomiting (80% protection). The cannabinoid CB(1) antagonist (SR 141716A) and not the CB(2) antagonist (SR 144528), reversed the antiemetic effects of Delta(9)-THC in a dose-dependent fashion. Delta(9)-THC (1, 5, 10 and 20 mg/kg, ip) suppressed locomotor parameters (spontaneous locomotor activity, duration of movement and rearing frequency) in a biphasic manner and only the 20-mg/kg dose simultaneously suppressed the triad of locomotor parameters to a significant degree. Subcutaneous (1-10 mg/kg) and intraperitoneal (0.05-40 mg/kg) injection of some doses of SR 141716A caused significant reductions in one or more components of the triad of locomotor parameters but these reductions were not dose dependent. Subcutaneous injection of SR 141716A (0.2, 1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) reversed the motor suppressant effects of a 20-mg/kg dose of Delta(9)-THC (ip) in a dose-dependent manner. Relative to its motor suppressant effects, Delta(9)-THC is a more potent antiemetic agent. Both effects are probably mediated via CB(1) receptors in distinct loci.

Activational role of cannabinoids on movement

Cannabinoid's major effect on movement is hypoactivity. Nevertheless, a biphasic excitatory/inhibitory effect of cannabinoids on movement has been repeatedly acknowledged. However, the literature is lacking a detailed description of such an effect. In this study, we performed a dose-response study of the effects of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol on movement. Immediately after the administration of vehicle or a dose of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (0.2, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, or 5 mg/kg), the animal was placed in an activity monitor and observed for 1 h. Several parameters were recorded. The horizontal and vertical activities were measured as the number of photobeams broken between the photocells on the walls of an activity monitor. The number of wet dog shakes, scratches with hindpaw, mouth movements, forepaw flutters were also recorded, as was the amount of time in minutes that each subject spent grooming. The number of fecal boluses was recorded as an index of autonomic activity. Each animal was subsequently tested for catalepsy in the bar test. A triphasic effect was observed: low doses of the cannabinoid receptor agonist Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (0.2 mg/kg) decreased locomotor activity while higher doses (1-2 mg/kg) dose-dependently stimulated movement until catalepsy emerged (2.5 mg/kg) accompanied by decreases in activity.

Motor actions of cannabinoids in the basal ganglia output nuclei

The levels of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the basal ganglia are the highest in the brain, comparable to the levels of dopamine receptors, a major transmitter in the basal ganglia. This localization of receptors is consistent with the profound effects on motor function exerted by cannabinoids. The output nuclei of the basal ganglia, the globus pallidus (GP) and substantia nigra reticulata (SNr), apparently lack intrinsic cannabinoid receptors. Rather, the receptors are located on afferent terminals, the striatum being the major source. Cannabinoids blocked the inhibitory action of the striatal input in the SNr. Furthermore, cannabinoids blocked the excitatory effect of stimulation of the subthalamic input to the SNr revealing, along with data from in situ hybridization studies, that this input is another likely source of cannabinoid receptors to the SNr. Similar actions of cannabinoids were observed in the GP. Behavioral studies further revealed that the action of cannabinoids differs depending upon which input to the output nuclei of the basal ganglia is active. The inhibitory striatal input is quiescent and the cannabinoid action is observable only upon stimulation of the striatum, while the noticeable effect of cannabinoids under basal conditions would be on the tonically active subthalamic input. These data suggest that the recently discovered endogenous cannabinergic system exerts a major modulatory action in the basal ganglia by its ability to block both the major excitatory and inhibitory inputs to the SNr and GP.

Behavioural and biochemical evidence for signs of abstinence in mice chronically treated with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol

Tolerance and dependence induced by chronic delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) administration were investigated in mice. The effects on body weight, analgesia and hypothermia were measured during 6 days of treatment (10 or 20 mg kg(-1) THC twice daily). A rapid tolerance to the acute effects was observed from the second THC administration. The selective CB-1 receptor antagonist SR 141716A (10 mg kg(-1)) was administered at the end of the treatment, and somatic and vegetative manifestations of abstinence were evaluated. SR 141716A administration precipitated several somatic signs that included wet dog shakes, frontpaw tremor, ataxia, hunched posture, tremor, ptosis, piloerection, decreased locomotor activity and mastication, which can be interpreted as being part of a withdrawal syndrome. Brains were removed immediately after the behavioural measures and assayed for adenylyl cyclase activity. An increase in basal, forskolin and calcium/calmodulin stimulated adenylyl cyclase activities was specifically observed in the cerebellum of these mice. The motivational effects of THC administration and withdrawal were evaluated by using the place conditioning paradigm. No conditioned change in preference to withdrawal associated environment was observed. In contrast, a conditioned place aversion was produced by the repeated pairing of THC (20 mg kg(-1)), without observing place preference at any of the doses used. This study constitutes a clear behavioural and biochemical model of physical THC withdrawal with no motivational aversive consequences. This model permits an easy quantification of THC abstinence in mice and can be useful for the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in cannabinoid dependence.

Effects of ipsapirone and cannabidiol on human experimental anxiety

The effects of ipsapirone and cannabidiol (CBD) on healthy volunteers submitted to a simulated public speaking (SPS) test were compared with those of the anxiolytic benzodiazepine diazepam and placebo. Four independent groups of 10 subjects received, under a double-blind design, placebo or one of the following drugs: CBD (300 mg), diazepam (10 mg) or ipsapirone (5 mg). Subjective anxiety was evaluated through the Visual Analogue Mood Scale (VAMS) and the State-trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The VAMS anxiety factor showed that ipsapirone attenuated SPS-induced anxiety while CBD decreased anxiety after the SPS test. Diazepam, on the other hand, was anxiolytic before and after the SPS test, but had no effect on the increase in anxiety induced by the speech test. Only ipsapirone attenuated the increase in systolic blood pressure induced by the test. Significant sedative effects were only observed with diazepam. The results suggest that ipsapirone and CBD have anxiolytic properties in human volunteers submitted to a stressful situation.

Effect of acute administration of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol on beta-endorphin levels in plasma and brain tissue of the rat

Acute treatment with delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 1-THC) elevated the concentration of beta-endorphin-like immunoreactivity (beta-ELIR) in plasma and in the hypothalamus, but not in the hippocampus of rats habituated to the injection procedure. These effects were not obtained with the psychotropically inert analog of delta 1-THC, cannabidiol. In animals that had not been habituated to the injection procedure, placebo treatment induced a decrease in hippocampal beta-ELIR.

Pharmacological activity of the basic fraction of marihuana whole smoke condensate alone and in combination with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice

This basic fraction (BF) of marihuana whole smoke condensate was subjected to pharmacological testing in males, Swiss-Webster mice. In a general pharmacological activity screen looking at behavioral, neurologic, and autonomic parameters, BF, at iv doses of 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg, caused impairment of visual placing, increase in tail pinch response, decrease in tail elevation, and induction of piloerection. These effects, although statistically significant, were slight and not consistently dose dependent. In a second study with doses ranging from 10 to 29 mg/kg, BF caused a decrease in spatial locomotion, rearing behavior, and urination incidence. In a third study, body temperatures of mice were measured periodically for 2 hr following administration of BF (1.2, 2.4, and 4.8 mg/kg) alone or in combination with 1.0 mg/kg delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). BF did not alter body temperature, nor did it affect THC-induced hypothermia. These results, although suggesting that the basic fraction of marihuana whole smoke condensate has pharmacological activity in mice, offers little evidence for the presence of highly active compounds.

delta 1-Tetrahydrocannabinol-induced circling behavior in rats: a possible measure of psychotomimetic activity?

Relatively high dosages of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 1-THC) markedly suppressed almost all normally occurring behavioral elements in rats as observed in both a small and a large open field. This effect persisted following repeated treatment and testing for 3 consecutive days. The psychotropically inert but related compound cannabidiol (CBD) did not suppress behavior, but in contrast had a mild activating effect. Both compounds decreased defecation during the test procedure. In addition, delta 1-THC, but not CBD, induced a bizarre circling and turning response, that was evident over all 3 test days and occurred even when the rats were deeply sedated. It is suggested that an analysis of this phenomenon may be useful in measuring the psychotomimetic action of delta 1-THC and similar compounds in rats.

The effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol alone and in combination with cannabidiol on fixed-interval performance in rhesus monkeys

It has been reported that cannabidiol (CBD) antagonizes the effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on operant behavior in rats and pigeons. We have replicated this finding with rhesus monkeys. Four rhesus monkeys were trained to lever press on a fixed-interval 5-min schedule of food presentation with a 1-min limited hold and 1-min time out between successive intervals. The effects of 0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg THC alone were determined three times during the experiment; before the CBD-THC interaction, after the CBD-THC interaction and once with the CBD vehicle. A dose of 30 mg/kg CBD, which alone resulted in a 24% reduction in responding, completely antagonized the response rate reduction produced by 0.3 mg/kg THC. The effects of THC revealed a rate-dependent effect that did not conform to the log-linear rate-dependency plots described for most other drugs.

Self-administration of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol by rats

The present study examines the dose-response pattern of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol self-injection in naive rats at 80% reduced body weight and 100% body weight, both conditions with a fixed-time 1 min (FT-1) food delivery schedule. The results indicated that food deprived animals tested on a FT-1 min schedule self-injected low doses of delta 9-THC at a higher rate than those animals at 100% body weight and on a FT-1 min schedule. Animals at 80% reduced body weight without a schedule did not differ from rats self-injecting delta 9-THC at free feeding situation. These findings suggest that rats without previous history of drug dependence self-administer low doses of delta 9-THC and that the interaction between the food deprivation state and the environmental contingencies introduced by a FT-1 min schedule is a critical variable in the acquisition period.

Interaction between delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and morphine on the motor activity of mice

The present experiments dealt the effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on the locomotor activity stimulating action of morphine in mice. In the first series of experiments, the pretreatments of mice by THC in doses up to 20 mg/kg have been found to potentiate the morphine-induced hyperactivity in dose-dependent manner, but higher doses of THC did not produce such an action. In the second series of experiments the dose-response curve of morphine for the motor activity has been found to shift to the left by the pretreatment of mice with 10 mg/kg of THC. These results show a synergism between morphine and THC and suggest that both drugs may share some common site of action.

Relationship between body temperature and brain monoamines during the development of tolerance to delat9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rat

The development of tolerance to delat9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) was examined. Rats with permanently indwelling intravenous catheters were injected daily with delta9-THC, 2 mg/kg, for up to 10 days and on each day subjective behaviour and body weight of each rat were noted. Tolerance appeared to develop to both the excitatory and depressant behavioural effects of delta9-THC, whereas the rate of gain in body weight of delta9-THC treated rats was retarded and tolerance to this phenomenon did not develop over the experimental period. On days 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 10 body temperature was recorded continuously for at least 2 h after delta9-THC and in other groups of rats the brain levels of noradrenaline (NA), dopamine (DA), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) were measured spectrophotofluorimetrically 1 h after delta9-THC. Tolerance developed to the delta9-THC-induced hypothermia by day 3, and on days 6 and 10 hyperthermia was observed. delta9-THC did not markedly affect the brain levels of NA or DA over the experimental period. The brain levels of 5-HT were unchanged on days 1--5 but there was a decrease on days 6 and 10. On days 1, 2, and 3 brain levels of 5-HIAA were raised, whereas on day 6 there was a decrease. These results show that delta9-THC induces tolerance to the hypothermia and elevation of brain 5-HIAA levels in a linear manner. An inverse relationship appears to exist between these two parameters.

Effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on social behaviour in mice: comparison between two vehicles

Two vehicles for the intraperitoneal administration of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) were compared, using aspects of social behaviour in mice and 5 doses of delta9- THC, with vehicle alone and saline control groups. 10% propane-1,2-diol-1% Tween 80-saline (vehicle B) seemed to be more effective than 1% Tween 80-saline (vehicle A) since depressant effects of --1 delta9-THC on behaviour tended to occur at lower doses with this vehicle. Few differences in behaviour could be detected among the three control groups. In general the overall number of behavioural acts decreased with increasing doses of delta9-THC, but with vehicle B low doses selectively decreased the number of 'social' (including aggressive) as distinct from 'individual' acts. Low doses of the drug in vehicle A sometimes stimulated behaviour, whereas with vehicle B such doses mostly produced depression; however, 2.5 mg/kg delta9-THC, in either vehicle, markedly increased the percentage of animals which showed both aggression and flight acts--a rare combination among controls. Our findings are consistent with other evidence that propylene glycol is an effective vehicle for the i.p. administration of delta9-THC.

Constituents of Cannabis sativa L. VIII: Possible biological application of a new method to separate cannabidiol and cannabichromene

Synthetic and naturally occurring cannabidiol and cannabichromene were distinctly separated without derivation by GLC using a 6% OV-1 column; an artifact of cannabichromene, cannabicyclol, was separated from (minus)-delta9-trans-tetrahydrocanna-bivarin. This procedure is versatile and applicable for the quantitation of Cannabis containing both cannabidiol and cannabichromene. Biological interaction among (minus)-delta9-trans-tetrhydrocanabinol, cannabichromene, and other cannabinoids in natural Cannabis preparations can now be studied. In the phenyl methyl silicone polymer series, cannabidiol precedes ca-nabichromene on columns containing below a 50% phenyl-to-methyl ratio. Columns containing below a 50% phenyl-to-methyl ratio. Columns containing a 50:50 or greater ratio of phenyl to methyl reverse the separation order with cannabichromene preceding cannabidiol.

Absence of interaction between delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) in aggression, muscle control and body temperature experiments in mice

In this report we give the results of some experiments on the effects of the hashish constituents delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) on mice. THC produced a dose dependent depression of aggression in isolated mice and a dose dependent depression of body temperature in group caged mice. The drug did not alter motor co-ordination. CBD showed a small, not significant influence on aggressiveness, and no in fluence on body temoerature and muscle control. The dame experiments were carried out with combinations of THC and CBD in several dosages. In these experiments no interaction between both compounds was seen. This means that there can only be an additive action and not potentiation in the pharmacological sense. It also means that the in vitro inhibition by CBD of the drug metabolizing enzymes, responsible for biotransformation of THC. is not strong enough to result in changed effects of THC in the living animal.