Water retention and plasma and urine composition in toads (Bufo viridis Laur.) under burrowing conditions

Urea and amphibian water economy

Accumulation of urea in the body fluids enables some amphibians to tolerate high ambient salinities (Bufo viridis, Xenopus laevis, Rana cancrivora, Ambystoma tigrinum, Batrachoseps spp.) or to estivate in soil with low water potentials (Scaphiopus spp.). These species are assumed not only to accumulate urea produced in the normal metabolism, but to synthesize urea in response to water shortage. Re-examination of the data did not support the view of an osmoregulatory urea synthesis. Increased urea synthesis on exposure to high salinities in X. laevis, R. cancrivora and Batrachoseps spp. seemed to reflect reactions to an adverse environment. It is suggested that in amphibians, solute concentration in the plasma and rate of excretion of urea are coordinated so that at a certain plasma concentration, urea is excreted at the same rate at which it is produced. The higher the level of urea in the body fluids at balance between production and excretion, the higher the tolerance of the species of low external water potentials. The mechanisms that integrate the relationship between plasma solute concentration and handling of urea by the kidneys are not known.

Anuran amphibia which are not acclimable to high salt, tolerate high plasma urea

1. The capacity of five anuran Amphibians (Bufo viridis, B. regularis, Rana ridibunda, Hyla arborea and Pelobates syriacus) to acclimate to NaCl and urea solutions was investigated. 2. All species could be acclimated to relatively high concentrations of urea solutions, while only Bufo viridis and Hyla arborea could be acclimated to 500 mOsm/kg or higher NaCl solutions. 3. The plasma urea concentration in B. viridis and H. arborea was elevated to levels over 140 mmol/l. 4. The sum of plasma sodium and chloride concentrations did not increase over 400 mmol/l in any species. 5. Urine osmolality, which was normally low, increased, but never exceeded the plasma osmolality. 6. In the urea acclimation conditions, urine electrolytes diminished, similarly in all species in this study. 7. It is concluded that anuran Amphibians can tolerate high plasma urea concentrations, but only those species which can elevate it, either through retention or net synthesis, can be acclimated to high salt solutions.

Uricoteley:its nature and origin during the evolution of tetrapod vertebrates

The hepatic mechanism for detoxication of ammonia formed during amino acid gluconeogenesis in uricotelic vertebrates requires the intramitochondrial synthesis of glutamine by glutamine synthetase. This glutamine then serves as a precursor of uric acid in the cytosol. The evolutionary development of uricoteley thus required the localization of glutamine synthetase in liver mitochondria. The mechanism for the mitochondrial import of glutamine synthetase in uricotelic vertebrate liver is not yet known. Tortoises, extant relatives of the stem reptiles, possess both the ureotelic and uricotelic hepatic systems. It therefore seems likely that the genetic events allowing the mitochondrial localization of glutamine synthetase in liver occurred in the amniote amphibian ancestors of the stem reptiles. The selection of ureoteley by the theropsids and of uricoteley by the sauropsids were major events in the divergence and subsequent evolution of these two lines. Once established in the sauropsid line, uricoteley has persisted through to the higher reptiles, crocodilians, and birds. Uricoteley was in part responsible for the radiation of the archosaurs during the Triassic as a water-conserving mechanism in the adult, thereby allowing them to invade the arid environments of that period. Contrary to dogma, uricoteley was probably of minor significance in the development of the cleidoic egg. Neither mammalian nor avian embryonic liver tissues catabolize amino acids to any great extent, so it is inappropriate to attribute to them a kind of "waste" nitrogen metabolism.

Plasma osmolality, urine composition and tissue water content of the toad Bufo viridis Laur. in nature and under controlled laboratory conditions

The compositions of plasma and urine were studied in toads (Bufo viridis) which were collected from three locations in Israel, and compared with toads which were kept under constant laboratory conditions for nearly 2 years. Plasma osmolality was rather constant (over 310 mOsm kg-1 H2O) during the whole year in the active toads. Urea was the most variable osmolyte in the plasma, and accounted for the higher osmolality in southern population. Urine osmolality fluctuated in a circannual fashion both in freshly captured and in the toads under constant laboratory conditions. Water content of the tissues was constant throughout the year, independent of the plasma osmolality. It is concluded that high plasma urea concentration and the excretory system (kidneys and the urinary bladder) are important in sustaining constant plasma osmolality in active toads. Both mechanisms change annually and form the basis for the high terrestriality of this species.