Local excision of rectal cancer: what is the evidence?

Oncological outcomes of local excision versus radical surgery for early rectal cancer in the context of staging and surveillance: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Local resection (LR) methods for rectal cancer are generally considered in the palliative setting or for patients deemed a high anaesthetic risk. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare oncological outcomes of LR and radical resection (RR) for early rectal cancer in the context of staging and surveillance assessment.

METHODS

A literature search of MEDLINE, Embase and Emcare databases was performed for studies that reported data on clinical outcomes for both LR and RR for early rectal cancer from January 1995 to April 2023. Meta-analysis was performed using random-effect models and between-study heterogeneity was assessed. The quality of assessment was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for observational studies and the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2.0 tool for randomised controlled trials.

RESULTS

Twenty studies with 12,022 patients were included: 6,476 patients had LR and 5,546 patients underwent RR. RR led to an improvement in 5-year overall survival (OR 1.84; 95 % CI 1.54-2.20; p < 0.0001; I2 20 %) and local recurrence (OR 3.06; 95 % CI 2.02-4.64; p < 0.0001; I2 39 %) when compared to LR. However, when staging and surveillance methods were clearly adopted in LR cases, there was an improvement in R0 rates (96.7 % vs 85.6 %), 5-year disease-free survival (93.0 % vs 77.9 %) and overall survival (81.6 % vs 79.0 %) compared to when staging and surveillance was not reported/performed.

CONCLUSIONS

LR may be appropriate for selected patients without poor prognostic factors in early rectal cancer. This study also highlights that there is currently no single standardised staging or surveillance approach being adopted in the management of early rectal cancer. A more specified and standardised preoperative staging for patient selection as well as clinical and image-based surveillance protocols is needed.

Early Rectal Cancer and Local Excision: A Narrative Review

A rise in the incidence of early rectal cancer consequent to bowel-screening programs around the world and an increase in the incidence in young adults has led to a growing interest in organ-sparing treatment options. The rectum, being the most distal portion of the large intestine, is a fertile ground for local excision techniques performed with endoscopic or surgical techniques. Moreover, the advancement in endoscopic optical evaluation and the better definition of imaging techniques allow for a more precise local staging of early rectal cancer. Although the local treatment of early rectal cancer seems promising, in clinical practice, a significant number of patients who could benefit from local excision techniques undergo total mesorectal excision (TME) as the first approach. All relevant prospective clinical trials were identified through a computer-assisted search of the PubMed, EMBASE, and Medline databases until January 2024. This review is dedicated to endoscopic and surgical local excision in the treatment of early rectal cancer and highlights its possible role in current and future clinical practice, taking into account surgical completion techniques and chemoradiotherapy.

Comparison of hand-sewn anterior repair, resection and hand-sewn anastomosis, resection and stapled anastomosis techniques for the reversal of diverting loop ileostomy after low anterior rectal resection: a randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Low anterior resection in patients with rectal cancer may require a defunctioning loop ileostomy formation that requires closure after a period of time. There are three common techniques for ileostomy closure: anterior repair (AR or fold-over closure), resection and hand-sewn anastomosis (RHA), and resection and stapled anastomosis (RSA). We aimed to compare them on the basis of operative and postoperative features.

METHODS

Patients with rectal cancer who underwent low anterior resection without complications were included in this study and randomly assigned to three parallel groups to undergo loop ileostomy closure via either AR, RHA, or RSA. Early and late outcomes were gathered from all included patients.

RESULTS

Among 93 patients with a mean age of 56.21 ± 11.78 years, consisting of 58 (62.4%) men, 31 patients underwent AR, 30 patients RHA, and 32 patients RSA. There was no significant difference among the groups regarding the frequency and location of intraoperative injuries (P = 0.157). The AR groups demonstrated significantly less consumption of gauzes following intraoperative bleeding compared to the two others groups. The results showed that the duration of surgery in the RSA was significantly shorter than in the AR or RHA group (both P < 0.001). Regarding postoperative course, only one case of hematoma and two cases of surgical wound infection occurred in the RHA group. Anastomotic leakage and complete or partial obstruction did not occur in any group of patients. Latent postoperative complications did not occur in any group of patients. The median time between surgery and discharge as well as the interval until first gas passage, first defecation, oral tolerated liquid diet, as well as oral tolerated soft and regular diet in the AR group were significantly lower than in the two other groups (both P < 0.001). However, there was no statistical difference in these intervals between the RHA and RSA groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Resection and stapled anastomosis had the shortest duration among the three techniques; however, anterior repair had faster recovery, including earlier tolerated oral diet, gas passing and defecation, and discharge, in comparison with the other techniques.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trial registration number IRCT20120129008861N5.

Endoscopic and trans-anal local excision vs. radical resection in the treatment of early rectal cancer: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

PURPOSE

The management of early-stage rectal cancer in clinical practice is controversial. The aim of this network meta-analysis was to compare oncological and postoperative outcomes for T1T2N0M0 rectal cancers managed with local excision in comparison to conventional radical resection.

METHODS

A systematic review of Medline, Embase and Cochrane electronic databases was performed. Relevant studies were selected using PRISMA guidelines. The primary outcomes measured were 5-year local recurrence and overall survival. Secondary outcomes included rates of postoperative complication, 30-day mortality, positive margin and permanent stoma formation.

RESULTS

Three randomized controlled trials and 27 observational studies contributed 8570 patients for analysis. Radical resection was associated with reduced 5-year local recurrence in comparison to local excision. This was statistically significant in comparison to trans-anal local excision (odds ratio (OR) 0.23; 95% confidence interval 0.16-0.30) and favourable in comparison to endoscopic techniques (OR 0.40; 95% confidence interval 0.13-1.23) although this did not reach clinical significance. Positive margin rates were lowest for radical resection. However, 30-day mortality rates, perioperative complications and permanent stoma rates all favoured local excision with no statistically significant difference between endoscopic and trans-anal techniques.

CONCLUSION

Radical resection of early rectal cancer is associated with the lowest 5-year local recurrence rates and the lowest rate of positive margins. However, this must be balanced with its higher 30-day mortality and complication rates as well as the increased risk of permanent stoma. The emerging potential role of neoadjuvant therapy prior to local resection, and the heterogeneity of its use, as an alternative treatment for early rectal cancer further complicates the treatment paradigm and adds to controversy in this field.

Comparing neoadjuvant therapy followed by local excision to total mesorectal excision in the treatment of early stage rectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials

INTRODUCTION

Total mesorectal excision (TME) is the standard-of-care in early, clinical stage (cT2-3 N0 M0) rectal cancer. Local excision (LE) may be an alternative after adequate response to neoadjuvant therapy (NAT), with either long-course chemoradiotherapy (nCRT) or short-course radiotherapy (SCRT), as a means of preserving the rectum and potentially obviating the morbidity of TME.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed according to PRISMA guidelines for studies that randomly assigned patients with cT2-3 N0 M0 rectal cancer to either NAT + LE or TME that reported radiologic, oncologic, surgical, and morbidity outcomes.

RESULTS

A total of 4 RCTs comprise 462 patients (232 patients receiving NAT + LE; nCRT n = 205; SCRT n = 27) and 230 undergoing TME, respectively. NAT compliance was 98.86%. The rate of early completion TME in the NAT + LE group was 22.3%, while the proportion of patients achieving durable organ preservation was 75.4% at mean follow-up of 5.6 years. There was no difference in disease-free survival (DFS) (HR [hazard ratio] 1.19; 95% CI 0.95, 1.49; p = 0.13) or overall survival (OS) (HR 0.94; 95% CI 0.72, 1.23; p = 0.63]) according to the assigned treatment arm. The local recurrence rate (LRR) (HR 1.22; 95% CI 0.5-3.02; p = 0.66) and distant metastases (HR 0.92; 95% CI 0.45, 1.90; p = 0.82) were also comparable between the groups. There was a significant reduction in major (OR 0.45; 95% CI 0.21, 0.95; p = 0.04) and minor morbidity (OR 0.45; 95% CI 0.24, 0.85; p = 0.01) for patients undergoing NAT + LE. Overall stoma formation was decreased in the NAT + LE group (OR 0.03; 95% CI 0.0, 0.23; p ≤ 0.00001).

CONCLUSION

NAT + LE reduces adverse effects of TME, without any compromise in oncological outcomes, and the potential for an organ preserving strategy should be discussed with patients with T2-3N0 rectal cancers prior to treatment.

Report from the 24th Annual Western Canadian Gastrointestinal Cancer Consensus Conference on Colorectal Cancer, Richmond, British Columbia, 28-29, October 2022

The 24th annual Western Canadian Gastrointestinal Cancer Consensus Conference (WCGCCC) was held in Richmond, British Columbia, on 28-29 October 2022. The WCGCCC is an interactive multidisciplinary conference attended by healthcare professionals from across Western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba) who are involved in the care of patients with gastrointestinal cancer. Surgical, medical, and radiation oncologists; pathologists; radiologists; and allied health care professionals such as dieticians, nurses and a genetic counsellor participated in presentation and discussion sessions for the purpose of developing the recommendations presented here. This consensus statement addresses current issues in the management of colorectal cancer.

Predictors and outcomes of positive surgical margins after local excision of clinical T1 rectal cancer: A National Cancer Database analysis

BACKGROUND

Transanal local excision and the use of specialized platforms has become increasingly popular for early-stage rectal cancer. Predictors and outcomes of positive resection margins following transanal local excision for early-stage rectal cancer have yet to be explored.

METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of the National Cancer Database of all patients with clinical nonmetastatic node negative T1 rectal adenocarcinoma who underwent transanal local excision from 2004 to 2017. Patients with positive surgical margins were compared to those with negative resection margins to determine factors associated with predictors and outcomes of positive surgical margins after transanal local excision. The main outcome measure was overall survival.

RESULTS

Of 318,548 patients with rectal adenocarcinoma in the National Cancer Database, 9,078 (2.8%) met the inclusion criteria. The positive surgical margins rate was 7.4%. Predictors of positive surgical margins were older age (odds ratio, 1.03; P < .001), higher Charlson comorbidity index (odds ratio, 1.24; P = .004), poorly differentiated carcinomas (odds ratio, 1.89; P < .001), mucinous (odds ratio, 2.36; P = .003) and signet-ring cell carcinomas (odds ratio, 4.7; P = .048). Independent predictors of reduced survival were older age (hazard ratio, 1.062; P < .001), male sex (hazard ratio, 1.214; P = .011), Charlson comorbidity index 3 (hazard ratio, 1.94; P < .001), pathologic T2 (hazard ratio, 1.27; P = .036) and T3 stages (hazard ratio, 1.77; P = .006), poorly differentiated carcinomas (hazard ratio, 1.47; P = .008), and positive surgical margins (hazard ratio, 1.374; P = .018). The positive surgical margins group's median overall survival was significantly shorter (88 vs 159.3 months, P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Positive surgical margins after transanal local excision for early-stage node-negative rectal cancer adversely affects prognosis. Older male patients with higher Charlson comorbidity index scores and poorly differentiated mucinous or signet cell histology tumors are at risk for positive surgical margins. Patient selection according to these suggested criteria may help avoid positive surgical margins.

Radical vs. Local Excision in Rectal Carcinoma T1N0M0: Recurrence and Mortality Rates

Local transanal excision of early rectal carcinoma is an appealing treatment because of its low morbidity rates and better functional results than radical resection. However, this treatment approach is controversial due to its association with local recurrence when compared to the latter. This review aims to compare the local recurrence and mortality rates of local vs. radical excision in patients with T1N0M0 rectal carcinoma, based on data in the literature in the last 20 years. A PubMed, Cochrane, and Google Scholar search of published literature in the last 20 years was performed. A total of 12 studies were identified. Three were prospective, one was a population-based propensity matching study, one was a nationwide cohort study, one was a meta-analysis, and the remaining studies were retrospective/observational. The mean local recurrence rate within five years from the studies selected for local excision (LE: 12.8%) was nearly double that of radical excision (RAD: 5.0%). The five-year mean survival rate for both LE and RAD groups from the studies selected was 86%, which was equal for both groups. The main predictors of poor outcomes were older age and the presence of two or more comorbid conditions. There is a consensus amongst studies that LE is associated with inferior oncological outcomes such as postoperative complications and recurrence when compared to RAD. The higher local recurrence rates in LE are attributed to occult lymph node disease and inadequate adjunctive therapy due to suboptimal staging. There is no difference in the five-year survival rate when compared to RAD. A longer follow-up period is needed to determine whether the survival rates diverge after five years.

Robotic Transanal Surgery for Rectal Cancer

Robotic transanal surgery is the culmination of major developments in rectal cancer management and minimally invasive surgery. It is the result of continuous efforts to tackle the challenges inherent to rectal cancer surgery. This latest technology holds great promise and excitement for the care of the rectal cancer patient. In this article, we will describe the evolution of transanal rectal cancer surgery and describe how the convergence of transanal transabdominal, transanal endoscopic microsurgery, transanal minimally invasive surgery (TAMIS), transanal total mesorectal excision (taTME), and the different robotic platforms have culminated in the development of single port robotic transanal minimally invasive surgery (SP rTAMIS) and single port robotic transanal total mesorectal excision (SP rtaTME). We will describe the indications, technical aspects, outcomes, benefits, and limitations of the SP rTAMIS and SP rtaTME.

Tolerability and safety of adjuvant chemoradiotherapy with S-1 after limited surgery for T1 or T2 lower rectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Chemo-radiotherapy (CRT) after local excision for pT1 with high-risk features or pT2 rectal cancer is recommended as an optional treatment to achieve both curability and maintenance of quality of life. The aim of this study was to evaluate the short-term safety of combining limited surgery with adjuvant CRT for T1 or T2 lower rectal cancer.

METHODS

This was a multicenter, single-arm, prospective phase II trial. Patients diagnosed with lower rectal or anal canal cancer (clinical T1 or T2 with a maximum diameter of 30 mm and N0 and M0) underwent local excision or endoscopic resection. Patients received CRT with S-1 (tegafur/gimeracil/oteracil) after confirmation of well- or moderately differentiated adenocarcinoma, and negative margins, and/or depth of submucosal invasion ≥ 1000 µm or muscularis propria, and/or positive lymphovascular invasion, and/or tumor budding grade of 2/3. The primary endpoint was relapse-free survival. Secondary endpoints included overall and local relapse-free survival, safety, anal sphincter preservation rate, and anal function.

RESULTS

Pathological diagnosis was T1 in 36 patients and T2 in 16 patients. Serious complications after surgery were not reported. The CRT completion rate per protocol was 86.5% (45/52). Thirty-two patients developed 54 events of CRT-related adverse events, including only one patient with a grade 3 event (stomatitis). The most common CRT-related adverse event was diarrhea (n = 14). No patients showed deterioration of anal function at 3 years postoperatively.

CONCLUSION

CRT with S-1 after limited surgery for T1 or T2 lower rectal cancer resulted in a low incidence of toxicities and maintenance of anal function.

SP rTaTME: initial clinical experience with single-port robotic transanal total mesorectal excision (SP rTaTME)

BACKGROUND

The technical difficulty and steep learning curve of transanal total mesorectal excision (taTME) has limited widespread adoption. The single-port (SP) daVinci robot is designed to facilitate single-incision and natural-orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES). This paper describes the first clinical experience of single-port robotic taTME (SP rTaTME).

METHODS

This was a prospective study on consecutive patients with rectal cancer who underwent SP rTaTME proctosigmoidectomy with handsewn coloanal anastomosis in December 2018 and January 2019. The primary outcome was technical feasibility of the procedure. The secondary outcomes include blood loss, intraoperative complications, length of hospital stay, quality of the TME specimen, short- and long-term morbidity and mortality, as well as short-term oncologic follow -up.

RESULTS

There were two patients, a 48-year-old male and a 38-year-old female. Both operations were completed successfully without complications or conversion. Estimated blood loss was 200 mL and 130 mL. In both cases the TME was completed transanally using the SP robot. In the first patient, the abdominal portion was completed through an abdominal single-incision; in the second patient the operation was entirely performed transanally as a pure NOTES procedure. In both cases, the final pathology report showed a complete TME with negative margins. Patients were discharged on postoperative day 3 and 4,respectively. There was no long-term morbidity or mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

SP rTaTME is feasible and can be safely performed. It provides excellent optics and dexterity to work in a limited space. Future studies are required to further define the safety profile and the ultimate utility of the SP robot for taTME.

The multidisciplinary management of rectal cancer

Rectal cancer treatment has evolved during the past 40 years with the use of a standardized surgical technique for tumour resection: total mesorectal excision. A dramatic reduction in local recurrence rates and improved survival outcomes have been achieved as consequences of a better understanding of the surgical oncology of rectal cancer, and the advent of adjuvant and neoadjuvant treatments to compliment surgery have paved the way for a multidisciplinary approach to disease management. Further improvements in imaging techniques and the ability to identify prognostic factors such as tumour regression, extramural venous invasion and threatened margins have introduced the concept of decision-making based on preoperative staging information. Modern treatment strategies are underpinned by accurate high-resolution imaging guiding both neoadjuvant therapy and precision surgery, followed by meticulous pathological scrutiny identifying the important prognostic factors for adjuvant chemotherapy. Included in these strategies are organ-sparing approaches and watch-and-wait strategies in selected patients. These pathways rely on the close working of interlinked disciplines within a multidisciplinary team. Such multidisciplinary forums are becoming standard in the treatment of rectal cancer across the UK, Europe and, more recently, the USA. This Review examines the essential components of modern-day management of rectal cancer through a multidisciplinary team approach, providing information that is essential for any practising colorectal surgeon to guide the best patient care.

Evolution of Transanal Total Mesorectal Excision

Minimally invasive techniques continue to transform the field of colorectal surgery. Because traditional surgical approaches for rectal cancer are associated with significant mortality and morbidity, developing less invasive approaches to this disease is paramount. Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES), commonly known as "no incision surgery," represents the ultimate minimally invasive approach to disease. Although transgastric and transvaginal approaches for NOTES surgery were the initially explored, a transrectal approach for colorectal disease is intuitive given that it makes use of the resected organ for transluminal access. Furthermore, the transanal approach allows for improved, precise visualization of the presacral mesorectal plane compared with an abdominal viewpoint, particularly in the narrow, male pelvis. Finally, experience with existing transanal platforms that have been used for decades for local excision of rectal disease made the development of a transanal approach to total mesorectal excision (TME) feasible. Here, we will review the evolution of minimally invasive and transanal surgical techniques that allowed for the development of transanal TME and its introduction into clinical practice.

Primary local excision of stage 1 rectal cancer is not associated with worse oncological outcomes when compared with major resection

PURPOSE

Primary local excision (PLE) for early rectal cancers is associated with decreased surgical morbidity and mortality compared with major resection (MR). However, it is thought to be associated with poorer oncological outcomes. There is a paucity of data regarding PLE within the Australasian population. We present comparative post-operative and survival outcomes for stage 1 rectal cancers treated with PLE or MR from three Western Australian hospitals.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed on a prospectively maintained database of patients undergoing PLE or MR for stage 1 rectal cancers between February 1996 and May 2019.

RESULTS

Of the 533 patients, 81 underwent PLE. Median post-operative admission was shorter for those undergoing PLE, with no significant difference in post-operative complication rate. Five-year overall survival was greater following MR (89.6% CI 86.1-92.3) compared with PLE (84.6% CI 73.8-91.2; p = 0.0003). There was no significant difference in 5-year cancer-specific survival (MR, 94.4% CI 91.5-96.3; PLE, 95.3% CI 86.0-98.5; p = 0.98) or 5-year disease-free survival (MR, 92.3% CI 89.1-94.7; PLE, 89.1% CI 78.5-94.7; p = 0.36). Local excision provided poorer local tumour control with an inferior 5-year local recurrence rate (MR, 2.16% CI 1.08-4.28; PLE, 10.9% CI 5.30-21.6; p = 0.0002). After controlling for confounders, PLE was significantly associated with worse local recurrence but did not significantly impact overall survival, cancer-specific survival, overall recurrence, or metastatic recurrence.

CONCLUSION

Local excision of early rectal cancer remains a viable alternative, in those unwilling or unable to undergo MR. Patients should be informed that while PLE is associated with poorer local pelvic control, this does not translate to worse survival.

[Treatment strategy for early stage rectal cancer (T1 carcinoma)]

BACKROUND

A common consensus for the definition for early rectal cancer does not exist. This item is used in cases of histological findings including pTis, pT1 or pT2 tumors. The term early rectal cancer is not mentioned in the German S3 guidelines on colorectal cancer. The pTis tumors are located at the mucosa level of the intestinal wall and they have nearly no tendency to develop metastases but pT2 tumors have a high risk of local metastases; therefore, the term early rectal cancer is not adequate for pT2 tumors.

OBJECTIVE

This focus of this article is exclusively on pT1 rectal cancer. Following the histological definition, pT1 tumors of the rectum are located at the level of the mucosa and submucosa of the intestinal wall.

CONCLUSION

With respect to the nature of the tumor (e.g. size, grading, invasion of lymphatic and/or blood vessels, Kikuchi classification) local methods (endoscopic procedure, surgical techniques) or radical resections are recommended. Tumor budding is of increasing interest and importance. Depending on the severity of the tumor budding classification (bd1-bd3) there is an association with a more frequent occurrence of lymph node metastases and should therefore be taken into consideration in treatment decisions in the future.

For Patients with Early Rectal Cancer, Does Local Excision Have an Impact on Recurrence, Survival, and Quality of Life Relative to Radical Resection?

BACKGROUND

The most appropriate treatment for early-stage rectal cancers is controversial. The advantages of local excision regarding morbidity and function must be weighed against poorer oncologic efficacy. This study aimed to clarify further the role for local excision in the treatment of rectal cancer.

METHODS

A systematic review of Medline, SCOPUS, and Cochrane databases was conducted. Relevant studies were selected using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Data addressing five key questions about outcomes of local versus radical resection of rectal cancer were analyzed.

RESULTS

The 16 studies identified by this study were mostly retrospective, and none were randomized. Local excision was associated with fewer complications and better functional outcome than radical resection. Of 12 studies evaluating local recurrence, 6 showed a higher local recurrence rate among patients who underwent local excision. Two additional studies showed no increase in local recurrence rate among patients who underwent local excision of T1 lesions but a significantly higher local recurrence rate among those who underwent local excision of T2 lesions. High histologic grade, angiolymphatic invasion, perineural invasion, and depth within submucosa were features associated with a higher risk of local recurrence. In 7 of 15 studies, long-term survival was reduced compared with that of patients who underwent radical resection.

CONCLUSIONS

Although local excision for early-stage rectal cancer is associated with increased local recurrence and decreased overall survival compared with radical resection, local excision may be appropriate for select individuals who have T1 tumors with no adverse pathologic features.

Short-term outcomes of transanal completion total mesorectal excision (cTaTME) for rectal cancer: a case-matched analysis

BACKGROUND

Local excision of early rectal tumors as a rectal preserving treatment is gaining popularity, especially since bowel cancer screening programs result in a shift towards the diagnosis of early stage rectal cancers. However, unfavorable histological features predicting high risk for recurrence within the "big biopsy" may mandate completion total mesorectal excision (cTME). Completion surgery is associated with higher morbidity, poorer specimen quality, and less favorable oncological outcomes compared to primary TME. Transanal approach potentially improves outcome of completion surgery for rectal cancer. The aim of this study was to compare radical completion surgery after local excision for rectal cancer by the transanal approach (cTaTME) with conventional abdominal approach (cTME).

METHODS

All consecutive patients who underwent cTaTME for rectal cancer between 2012 and 2017 were case-matched with cTME patients, according to gender, tumor height, preoperative radiotherapy, and tumor stage. Surgical, pathological, and short-term postoperative outcomes were evaluated.

RESULTS

In total, 25 patients underwent completion TaTME and were matched with 25 patients after cTME. Median time from local excision to completion surgery was 9 weeks in both groups. In the cTaTME and cTME groups, perforation of the rectum occurred in 4 and 28% of patients, respectively (p = 0.049), leading to poor specimen quality in these patients. Number of harvested lymph nodes was higher after cTaTME (median 15; range 7-47) than after cTME (median 10; range 0-17). No significant difference was found in end colostomy rate between the two groups. Major 30-day morbidity (Clavien-Dindo≥ III) was 20 and 32%, respectively (p = 0.321). Hospital stay was significantly longer after cTME.

CONCLUSION

TaTME after full-thickness excision is a promising technique with a significantly lower risk of perforation of the rectum and better specimen quality compared to conventional completion TME.

Transanal Endoscopic Microsurgery with or without Completion Total Mesorectal Excision for T2 and T3 Rectal Carcinoma

AIM

Transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) is used for the resection of large rectal adenomas and well or moderately differentiated T1 carcinomas. Due to difficulty in preoperative staging, final pathology may reveal a carcinoma not suitable for TEM. Although completion total mesorectal excision is considered standard of care in T2 or more invasive carcinomas, this completion surgery is not always performed. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the outcome of patients after TEM-only, when completion surgery would be indicated.

METHODS

In this retrospective multicenter, observational cohort study, outcome after TEM-only (n = 41) and completion surgery (n = 40) following TEM for a pT2-3 rectal adenocarcinoma was compared.

RESULTS

Median follow-up was 29 months for the TEM-only group and 31 months for the completion surgery group. Local recurrence rate was 35 and 11% for the TEM-only and completion surgery groups respectively. Distant metastasis occurred in 16% of the patients in both groups. The 3-year overall survival was 63% in the TEM-only group and 91% in the completion surgery group respectively. Three-year disease-specific survival was 91 versus 93% respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Although local recurrence after TEM-only for pT2-3 rectal cancer is worse compared to the recurrence that occurs after completion surgery, disease-specific survival is comparable between both groups. The lower unadjusted overall survival in the TEM-only group indicates that TEM-only may be a valid alternative in older and frail patients, especially when high morbidity of completion surgery is taken into consideration. Nevertheless, completion surgery should always be advised when curation is intended.

Management of locally advanced rectal cancer in the elderly: a critical review and algorithm

Colorectal cancer incidence and death rates have been declining over the past 10 years. However, it remains the second leading cause of death in men ages 60-79 and the third leading cause of death in men over 80 and in women over 60 years old. However, there is little data specific to the treatment of the elder patient, since few of these patients are included in trials. With the advent of improved therapies, there are many alternative options available. Still, no definitive consensus or guidelines have been defined for this particular patient population. The goal of this study is to review the literature on the management of rectal cancer in the elderly and to propose treatment algorithms to help the oncology team in treatment decision-making.

Decision-Making Strategy for Rectal Cancer Management Using Radiation Therapy for Elderly or Comorbid Patients

Rectal cancer predominantly affects patients older than 70 years, with peak incidence at age 80 to 85 years. However, the standard treatment paradigm for rectal cancer oftentimes cannot be feasibly applied to these patients owing to frailty or comorbid conditions. There are currently little information and no treatment guidelines to help direct therapy for patients who are elderly and/or have significant comorbidities, because most are not included or specifically studied in clinical trials. More recently various alternative treatment options have been brought to light that may potentially be utilized in this group of patients. This critical review examines the available literature on alternative therapies for rectal cancer and proposes a treatment algorithm to help guide clinicians in treatment decision making for elderly and comorbid patients.

Comparison of transanal endoscopic microsurgery with or without neoadjuvant therapy and standard total mesorectal excision in the treatment of clinical T2 low rectal cancer: a meta-analysis

Some clinical trials demonstrated local resection for clinical T1 rectal cancer was safe and effective. But for clinical T2 rectal cancer, the results were controversial. Neoadjuvant therapy (NT) is proven to reduce the opportunity of advanced rectal cancer recurrence in various researches. The objective of this Meta-Analysis was to evaluate the oncological outcomes of transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) with or without NT comparing with conventional total mesorectal excision (TME) for the treatment of clinical T2 rectal cancer.To search for the relevant studies, an electronic search was done from the databases of Pubmed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library in this meta-analysis. We compared the effectiveness of transanal endoscopic microsurgery with or without NT and standard total mesorectal excision in the treatment of T2 Rectal Cancer. 1RCT and 3nRCTs including 121 TEM patients (TEM + NT: 59, TEM: 62) and 174 TME patients with T2 rectal cancer were retrieved. Compared with TME, there were no significant differences in the outcomes of local recurrence, overall recurrence, overall survival between TEM + NT group. However in compassion with TME, TEM without NT was associated with an increased local recurrence, overall recurrence, and a shorter overall survival, with individual ORs being 3.04 (95% Cl: 1.17-7.90; I2 = 0%), 5.67 (95% Cl: 1.58-20.38; I2 = 0%) and 0.12 (95% Cl: 0.02-0.65; I2 = 0%), respectively. Compared with TME, TEM after NT may be a feasible and safe organ preservative approach for patients with clinical T2 low rectal cancer. But for those without NT, TEM always seem be associated with worse oncological outcomes.

A modified sentinel lymph node technique combined with endoluminal loco-regional resection for the treatment of rectal tumours: a 14-year experience

AIM

After endoluminal loco-regional resection (ELRR) by transanal endoscopic microsurgey (TEM) the N parameter may remain undefined. Nucleotide-guided mesorectal excision (NGME) improves the lymph node harvest. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the long-term oncological results after ELRR with NGME.

METHOD

A total of 57 patients were enrolled over the period January 2001 to June 2015. All patients underwent ELRR by TEM. Prior to surgery, 99 m-technetium-marked nanocolloid was injected into the peritumoural submucosa. After removal of the specimen, the residual defect was probed to detect any residual radioactivity and 'hot' mesorectal fat was excised. All patients were included in a 5-year follow-up programme.

RESULTS

Significant radioactivity in the residual cavity was found in 28 out of 57 patients (49%). The mean number of lymph nodes harvest in irradiated and nonirradiated patients was 1.66 and 2.76, respectively. After 68.2 months' follow-up overall survival was 91.2%, disease-related mortality 3.5% and disease-free survival 89.5%. Two patients developed pulmonary metastases: one ypT3N0 patient underwent lung lobectomy after chemotherapy and one pT2N0 patient was managed with lung radiotherapy. Both patients are currently alive and disease-free at 48 months' follow-up. Two patients developed local recurrence 1 year after ELRR, both treated with neoadjuvant chemo-radiotherapy and total mesorectal excision. Comparing the present series with previous patients who did not undergo NGME, an increased number of harvested lymph nodes were observed, with a statistically significant difference (P = 0.0085).

CONCLUSION

NGME during ELRR improves the lymph node harvest and staging accuracy. The long-term results showed satisfactory local (3.5%) and distant (7%) recurrence rates.

Postoperative Chemoradiotherapy After Local Resection for High-Risk T1 to T2 Low Rectal Cancer: Results of a Single-Arm, Multi-Institutional, Phase II Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

After treatment with local excision for TNM stage I low rectal cancer, the risk of local recurrence is not only high for T2 lesions but also for T1 lesions with features of massive invasion to the submucosal layer and/or lymphovascular invasion.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of chemoradiotherapy combined with local excision in the treatment of T1 to T2 low rectal cancer.

DESIGN

We conducted a prospective, single-arm, phase II trial.

SETTINGS

This was a multicenter study.

PATIENTS

From April 2003 to October 2010, 57 patients were treated with local excision after additional external beam irradiation (45 Gy) plus continuous 5-week intravenous injection of 5-fluorouracil (250 mg/m per day) at 10 domestic hospitals. Fifty-three patients had clinical T1N0 lesions, and 4 had T2N0 lesions in the low rectum, located below the peritoneal reflection.

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

The primary end point was disease-free survival at 5 years.

RESULTS

The completion rate for full-dose chemoradiotherapy was 86% (49/57). Serious, nontransient treatment-related complications were not reported. With a median follow-up of 7.3 years after local excision, the 5-year disease-free survival rate was 94% for the 53 patients with T1 lesions and 75% for the 4 patients with T2 lesions. There were 2 local recurrences during the entire observation period. Anal function after local excision and chemoradiation were kept at almost the same levels as observed before treatment.

LIMITATIONS

The study was limited by the small number of registered T2 rectal cancers, retrospective evaluations of quality of life, and the exclusion of poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma (a high-risk feature of T1 lesions).

CONCLUSIONS

The addition of chemoradiotherapy to local excision of T1 rectal adenocarcinomas with poor prognostic features including deep submucosal invasion and lymphovascular invasion could improve on less favorable historic oncologic outcomes of local excision alone in this high-risk group for lymph node metastasis. See Video Abstract at http://links.lww.com/DCR/A421.

Transanal Endoscopic Operation Versus Conventional Transanal Excision for Rectal Tumors: Case-Matched Study with Propensity Score Matching

BACKGROUNDS

Although transanal endoscopic surgery is practiced worldwide, there is no consensus on comparative outcomes between transanal endoscopic operation (TEO) and transanal excision (TAE). In this study, we reviewed our experiences with these techniques and compared patients who underwent TEO and TAE using propensity score matching (PSM).

METHODS

A total of 207 patients underwent local rectal tumor excision between January 2008 and November 2015. To overcome selection bias, we used PSM to achieve a one-to-one TEO: TAE ratio. We included baseline characteristics, age, sex, surgeon, American Society of Anesthesiologists score, tumor location (clockwise direction), involved circumference quadrants, tumor size, and pathology.

RESULTS

After PSM, 72 patients were included in each group. The tumor distance from the anal verge was higher in the TEO group (8.0 [5-10] vs. TAE: 4.0 [3-5], p < 0.001). Complication rates did not differ between the groups (TEO: 8.3% vs. TAE: 11.1%, p = 0.39). TEO was associated with a shorter hospital stay (3.01 vs. 4.68 days, p = 0.001), higher negative margin rate (95.8 vs. 86.1%, p = 0.039), and non-fragmented specimen rate vs. TAE (98.6 vs. 90.3%, p = 0.029).

CONCLUSIONS

TEO was more beneficial for patients with higher rectal tumors. Regardless of tumor location, involved circumference quadrants, and tumor size, TEO may more effectively achieve negative resection margins and non-fragmented specimens. Consequently, although local excision method according to tumor distance may be important, TEO will become the standard for rectal tumors.

Diagnostic performance of MRI for prediction of candidates for local excision of rectal cancer (ypT0-1N0) after neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy

PURPOSE

To evaluate the diagnostic performance of rectal MRI in predicting candidates for local excision (LE; ypT0-1N0) after neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy (CRT) in patients with rectal cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The institutional review board approved our retrospective study and waived informed consent. Inclusion criteria were as follows: patients with pathologically confirmed mid to lower rectal cancer (cT3NxM0 before neoadjuvant CRT) who underwent neoadjuvant CRT and had MRI performed at 3T before and after neoadjuvant CRT. A total of 168 patients met the study criteria between 2011 and 2012. Two observers independently assessed tumor and nodal stages on MR images obtained after neoadjuvant CRT. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and accuracy for identifying a candidate for LE (ypT0-1N0) were calculated. Interobserver agreement was assessed with kappa value. Predictive factors for ypT0-1N0 were evaluated by logistic regression models.

RESULTS

MRI had relatively high accuracy, specificity, and NPV (85.9%, 93.8%, and 88.9% for observer 1 and 85.3%, 96.1%, and 86.6% for observer 2), moderate PPV (71.4% and 76.2%), and relatively low sensitivity (57.1% and 45.7%) for predicting ypT0-1N0. The interobserver agreement was fair (kappa value = 0.593). Carcinoembryonic antigen levels after neoadjuvant CRT and the maximal extramural depth of tumor spread were significant predictors of ypT0-1N0 (P = 0.037 and 0.017, respectively).

CONCLUSION

MRI after neoadjuvant CRT can predict a candidate for LE (ypT0-1N0) after neoadjuvant CRT with moderate PPV and relatively high NPV. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2016;44:471-477.

Transanal Endoscopic Microsurgery

Transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) was developed by Professor Gerhard Buess 30 years ago at the dawn of minimally invasive surgery. TEM utilizes a closed proctoscopic system whereby endoluminal surgery is accomplished with high-definition magnification, constant CO2 insufflation, and long-shafted instruments. The end result is a more precise excision and closure compared to conventional instrumentation. Virtually any benign lesion can be addressed with this technology; however, proper patient selection is paramount when using it for cancer.

Current status of local treatment for early rectal cancer in Japan: a questionnaire survey by the 81st Congress of the Japanese Society for Cancer of the Colon and Rectum (JSCCR) in 2014

PURPOSE

The aim of this questionnaire survey was to assess the change in treatment modality over time and the current status of clinical outcomes of local treatment in Japanese patients with pathological T1 (pT1) rectal tumors.

METHODS

A questionnaire survey was conducted by the 81st Congress of the Japan Society for Cancer of the Colon and Rectum. Clinical and pathological outcomes of all eligible patients undergoing local treatment were retrospectively collected from the medical records of each participating hospital.

RESULTS

A total of 1371 pT1 patients from January 2006 to December 2008 (Period A), and 659 patients in 2013 (Period B) were registered. Approximately 70 % of patients underwent radical surgery in both periods. The rate of patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery increased from 46.5 % in Period A to 84.7 % in Period B. The indications for local excision were comparable with those for endoscopic intervention in 78 % of institutions. The rate of endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) increased from 20.1 % in Period A to 37.9 % in Period B, whereas local excision decreased from 36.9 to 24.1 %. Few patients received adjuvant therapy, and approximately 40 % of patients underwent additional surgery in both periods. Local recurrence was observed in 9.2 % of patients in Period A, with the median follow-up period being 59 months. Eighty-two percent of patients with local recurrence underwent salvage surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

Local treatment with various modalities was properly performed for early rectal cancer. The number of less invasive modalities, such as laparoscopic surgery and ESD, increased between study periods.

Rectal cancer: An evidence-based update for primary care providers

Rectal adenocarcinoma is an important cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, and key anatomic differences between the rectum and the colon have significant implications for management of rectal cancer. Many advances have been made in the diagnosis and management of rectal cancer. These include clinical staging with imaging studies such as endorectal ultrasound and pelvic magnetic resonance imaging, operative approaches such as transanal endoscopic microsurgery and laparoscopic and robotic assisted proctectomy, as well as refined neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapies. For stage II and III rectal cancers, combined chemoradiotherapy offers the lowest rates of local and distant relapse, and is delivered neoadjuvantly to improve tolerability and optimize surgical outcomes, particularly when sphincter-sparing surgery is an endpoint. The goal in rectal cancer treatment is to optimize disease-free and overall survival while minimizing the risk of local recurrence and toxicity from both radiation and systemic therapy. Optimal patient outcomes depend on multidisciplinary involvement for tailored therapy. The successful management of rectal cancer requires a multidisciplinary approach, with the involvement of enterostomal nurses, gastroenterologists, medical and radiation oncologists, radiologists, pathologists and surgeons. The identification of patients who are candidates for combined modality treatment is particularly useful to optimize outcomes. This article provides an overview of the diagnosis, staging and multimodal therapy of patients with rectal cancer for primary care providers.

Local excision for early rectal cancer: transanal endoscopic microsurgery and beyond

The goal of treatment for early stage rectal cancer is to optimize oncologic control while minimizing the long-term impact of treatment on quality of life. The standard of care treatment for most stage I and II rectal cancers is radical surgery alone, specifically total mesorectal excision (TME). For early rectal cancers, this procedure is usually curative but can have a substantial impact on quality of life, including the possibility of permanent colostomy and the potential for short and long-term bowel, bladder, and sexual dysfunction. Given the morbidity associated with radical surgery, alternative approaches to management of early rectal cancer have been explored, including local excision (LE) via transanal excision (TAE) or transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) and transanal minimally invasive surgery (TAMIS). Compared to the gold standard of radical surgery, local procedures for strictly selected early rectal cancers should lead to identical oncological results and even better outcomes regarding morbidity, mortality, and quality of life.

Impact of technology on indications and limitations for transanal surgical removal of rectal neoplasms

Transanal surgery has and continues to be well accepted for local excision of benign rectal disease not amenable to endoscopic resection. More recently, there has been increasing interest in applying transanal surgery to local resection of early malignant disease. In addition, some groups have started utilizing a transanal route in order to accomplish total mesorectal excision (TME) for more advanced rectal malignancies. We aim to review the role of various transanal and endoscopic techniques in the local resection of benign and malignant rectal disease based on published trial data. Preliminary data on the use of transanal platforms to accomplish TME will also be highlighted. For endoscopically unresectable rectal adenomas, transanal surgery remains a widely accepted method with minimal morbidity that avoids the downsides of a major abdomino-pelvic operation. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery and transanal minimally invasive surgery offer improved visualization and magnification, allowing for finer and more precise dissection of more proximal and larger rectal lesions without compromising patient outcome. Some studies have demonstrated efficacy in utilizing transanal platforms in the surgical management of early rectal malignancies in selected patients. There is an overall higher recurrence rate with transanal surgery with the concern that neither chemoradiation nor salvage surgery may compensate for previous approach and correct the inferior outcome. Application of transanal platforms to accomplish transanal TME in a natural orifice fashion are still in their infancy and currently should be considered experimental. The current data demonstrate that transanal surgery remains an excellent option in the surgical management of benign rectal disease. However, care should be used when selecting patients with malignant disease. The application of transanal platforms continues to evolve. While the new uses of transanal platforms in TME for more advanced rectal malignancy are exciting, it is important to remain cognizant and not sacrifice long term survival for short term decrease in morbidity and improved cosmesis.

Treatment of rectal cancer by transanal endoscopic microsurgery: Experience with 425 patients

AIM: To describe our experience in treating rectal cancer by transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM), report morbidity and mortality and oncological outcome.

METHODS: A total of 425 patients with rectal cancer (120 T1, 185 T2, 120 T3 lesions) were staged by digital rectal examination, rectoscopy, transanal endosonography, magnetic resonance imaging and/or computed tomography. Patients with T1-N0 lesions and favourable histological features underwent TEM immediately. Patients with preoperative stage T2-T3-N0 underwent preoperative high-dose radiotherapy; from 1997 those aged less than 70 years and in good general health also underwent preoperative chemotherapy. Patients with T2-T3-N0 lesions were restaged 30 d after radiotherapy and were then operated on 40-50 d after neoadjuvant therapy. The instrumentation designed by Buess was used for all procedures.

RESULTS: There were neither perioperative mortality nor intraoperative complications. Conversion to other surgical procedures was never required. Major complications (urethral lesions, perianal or retroperitoneal phlegmon and rectovaginal fistula) occurred in six (1.4%) patients and minor complications (partial suture line dehiscence, stool incontinence and rectal haemorrhage) in 42 (9.9%). Postoperative pain was minimal. Definitive histological examination of the 425 malignant lesions showed 80 (18.8%) pT₀, 153 (36%) pT₁, 151 (35.5%) pT₂, and 41 (9.6%) pT₃ lesions. Eighteen (4.2%) patients (ten pT₂ and eight pT₃) had a local recurrence and 16 (3.8%) had distant metastasis. Cancer-specific survival rates at the end of follow-up were 100% for pT₁ patients (253 mo), 93% for pT₂ patients (255 mo) and 89% for pT₃ patients (239 mo).

CONCLUSION: TEM is a safe and effective procedure to treat rectal cancer in selected patients without evidence of nodal involvement. T2-T3 lesions require preoperative neoadjuvant therapy.

Analysis of 116 cases of rectal cancer treated by transanal local excision

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the therapeutic effects and prognostic factors of transanal local excision (TAE) for rectal cancer.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed 116 cases that underwent TAE for rectal cancer from 1995 to 2008. A Cox regression analysis was used to analyze prognostic factors.

RESULTS

The survival times for the patients were from 14 to 160.5 months (median time, 58.5 months). The 5-year and 10-year overall survival rates were 72% and 53%, respectively. In all 16 cases experienced local recurrence (13.8%). Pathological type, recurrence or metastasis, and depth of infiltration (T stage) were the prognostic factors according to the univariate analysis, and the latter two were independent factors affecting patient prognosis. For patients with T1 stage who underwent adjuvant radiotherapy, there was no local recurrence; for those in T2 stage, the local recurrence rate was 14.6%. In addition, there was no difference between the patients who received radiotherapy and those who did not (T1: P = 0.260, T2: P = 0.262 for survival rate and T1: P = 0.480, T2: P = 0.560 for recurrence).

CONCLUSIONS

The result of TAE for rectal cancer is satisfactory for T1 stage tumors, but it is not suitable for T2 stage tumors.

Clinical competence in the surgery of rectal cancer: the Italian Consensus Conference

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The literature continues to emphasize the advantages of treating patients in "high volume" units by "expert" surgeons, but there is no agreed definition of what is meant by either term. In September 2012, a Consensus Conference on Clinical Competence was organized in Rome as part of the meeting of the National Congress of Italian Surgery (I Congresso Nazionale della Chirurgia Italiana: Unità e valore della chirurgia italiana). The aims were to provide a definition of "expert surgeon" and "high-volume facility" in rectal cancer surgery and to assess their influence on patient outcome.

METHOD

An Organizing Committee (OC), a Scientific Committee (SC), a Group of Experts (E) and a Panel/Jury (P) were set up for the conduct of the Consensus Conference. Review of the literature focused on three main questions including training, "measuring" of quality and to what extent hospital and surgeon volume affects sphincter-preserving procedures, local recurrence, 30-day morbidity and mortality, survival, function, choice of laparoscopic approach and the choice of transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM).

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The difficulties encountered in defining competence in rectal surgery arise from the great heterogeneity of the parameters described in the literature to quantify it. Acquisition of data is difficult as many articles were published many years ago. Even with a focus on surgeon and hospital volume, it is difficult to define their role owing to the variability and the quality of the relevant studies.

A systematic review of local excision combined with chemoradiotherapy for early rectal cancer

AIM

Local excision of early rectal cancer is a less morbid alternative to major abdominal surgery. This review evaluates the role of local excision with neoadjuvant or adjuvant chemoradiotherapy to identify a select group of patients where local excision is appropriate without significantly compromising the oncological outcome.

METHOD

MEDLINE, PubMed and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases were searched to identify relevant articles investigating the role of local excision with adjuvant or neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy in patients with T1/T2N0M0 disease. Eleven studies comprising 455 patients were selected. Oncological end-points included overall survival, disease-free and disease-specific survival, recurrence rates as well as perioperative morbidity and mortality.

RESULTS

At a range of 30.5-115.2 months, median overall survival, disease-specific and disease-free survival were 75% (66-80.6%), 89% (75-93.3%) and 74% (64-85.2%), respectively. Median local, distant and overall recurrence rates were 10% (4.8-25%), 4.7% (4-11.8%) and 13.1% (10.7-23.5%), respectively. Mortality was 0% in all studies except one (2.9%). Most reported complications were minor and were treated conservatively.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review provides data suggesting that selected patients with T1/T2N0M0 rectal cancer may undergo local excision without compromising the oncological outcome otherwise conferred by total mesorectal excision. It may be a particularly useful option in patients in whom radical surgery is contraindicated. Randomized trials comparing both management strategies to consolidate this finding may lead to a paradigm change in the management of early rectal cancer.

Association between surgeon characteristics and their preferences for guideline-concordant staging and treatment for rectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Rectal cancer guidelines recommend transrectal ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging for locoregional staging and neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy (CRT) for Stage II/III disease, but studies show these are underutilized. We examined how surgeon preferences align with guidelines or vary by training.

METHODS

Questionnaires on training, years of practice, and staging/treatment preferences were sent to surgeons practicing in Florida.

RESULTS

Of 759 surveys distributed, 321 (42%) responded; 158 were excluded because they were trainees, not treating rectal cancer, or not board certified/eligible. Among the remaining 163, 71% were general surgeons, 18% colorectal surgeons, and 11% surgical oncologists. Colorectal surgeons and surgical oncologists were more likely than general surgeons to prefer transrectal ultrasound/magnetic resonance imaging (79% vs 50%; P < .01), and neoadjuvant CRT (71% vs 45%; P < .01). Differences remained significant after adjusting for years in practice.

CONCLUSION

Increased focus on appropriate use of staging procedures and neoadjuvant CRT within general surgery training/educational programs is warranted.

Transanal endoscopic microsurgery: a review

Rectal adenomas and cancers occur frequently. Small adenomas can be removed colonoscopically, whereas larger polyps are removed via conventional transanal excision. Owing to technical difficulties, adenomas of the mid- and upper rectum require radical resection. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) was first designed as an alternative treatment for these lesions. However, since its development TEM has been also used for a variety of rectal lesions, including carcinoids, rectal prolapse and diverticula, early stage carcinomas and palliative resection of rectal cancers. The objective of this review is to describe the current status of TEM in the treatment of rectal lesions. Since the 1980s, TEM has advanced substantially. With low recurrence rates, it is the method of choice for resection of endoscopically unresectable adenomas. Some studies have shown benefits to its use in treating early T1 rectal cancers compared with radical surgery in select patients. However, for more advanced rectal cancers TEM should be considered palliative or experimental. This technique has also been shown to be safe for the treatment of other uncommon rectal tumours, such as carcinoids. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery may allow for new strategies in the treatment of rectal pathology where technical limitations of transanal techniques have limited endoluminal surgical innovations.

Early detection of colorectal cancer recurrence in patients undergoing surgery with curative intent: current status and challenges

Despite advances in neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapy, attention to proper surgical technique, and improved pathological staging for both the primary and metastatic lesions, almost half of all colorectal cancer patients will develop recurrent disease. More concerning, this includes ~25% of patients with theoretically curable node-negative, non-metastatic Stage I and II disease. Given the annual incidence of colorectal cancer, approximately 150,000 new patients are candidates each year for follow-up surveillance. When combined with the greater population already enrolled in a surveillance protocol, this translates to a tremendous number of patients at risk for recurrence. It is therefore imperative that strategies aim for detection of recurrence as early as possible to allow initiation of treatment that may still result in cure. Yet, controversy exists regarding the optimal surveillance strategy (high-intensity vs. traditional), ideal testing regimen, and overall effectiveness. While benefits may involve earlier detection of recurrence, psychological welfare improvement, and greater overall survival, this must be weighed against the potential disadvantages including more invasive tests, higher rates of reoperation, and increased costs. In this review, we will examine the current options available and challenges surrounding colorectal cancer surveillance and early detection of recurrence.

Evolving treatment strategies for colorectal cancer: A critical review of current therapeutic options

Management of rectal cancer has markedly evolved over the last two decades. New technologies of staging have allowed a more precise definition of tumor extension. Refinements in surgical concepts and techniques have resulted in higher rates of sphincter preservation and better functional outcome for patients with this malignancy. Although, preoperative chemoradiotherapy followed by total mesorectal excision has become the standard of care for locally advanced tumors, many controversial matters in management of rectal cancer still need to be defined. These include the feasibility of a non-surgical approach after a favorable response to neoadjuvant therapy, the ideal margins of surgical resection for sphincter preservation and the adequacy of minimally invasive techniques of tumor resection. In this article, after an extensive search in PubMed and Embase databases, we critically review the current strategies and the most debatable matters in treatment of rectal cancer.

When is local excision appropriate for "early" rectal cancer?

Local excision is increasingly performed for “early stage” rectal cancer in the US; however, local recurrence after local excision has become a controversial issue in Western countries. Local recurrence is considered to originate based on the type of tumor and procedure performed, and in surgical margin-positive cases. This review focuses on the inclusion criteria of “early” rectal cancers for local excision from the Western and Japanese points of view. “Early” rectal cancer is defined as T1 cancer in the rectum. Only the tumor grade and depth of invasion are the “high risk” factors which can be evaluated before treatment. T1 cancers with sm1 or submucosal invasion <1,000 μm are considered to be “low risk” tumors with less than 3.2 % nodal involvement, and are considered to be candidates for local excision as the sole curative surgery. Tumors with a poor tumor grade should be excluded from local excision. Digital examination, endoscopy or proctoscopy with biopsy, a barium enema study and endorectal ultrasonography are useful for identifying “low risk” or excluding “high risk” factors preoperatively for a comprehensive diagnosis. The selection of an initial local treatment modality is also considered to be important according to the analysis of the nodal involvement rate after initial local treatment and after radical surgery.

TEM in the treatment of recurrent rectal cancer in elderly

Introduction

Transanal microscopic surgery is an important application of minimally invasive surgery of rectum, allowing realization of complex transanal intervention.

Patients and Methods

During the period between January 2002 and December 2010, seven patients, five men and two women, average age 75 years, with early rectal cancer recurrence were selected for this type of surgical palliative procedure. The selection of the patients is made by: transrectal ultrasonografy, colonoscopy and abdominal ultrasonografy, to rule out liver metastases, CT with and without enema, PET CT. Follow-up is approximately 12-30 months.

Results

The pathologic staging confirms the complete excision of recurrences. Then patients are referred for more complementary therapies.

Discussion

The significance of conservative treatment for local recurrence of rectum adenocarcinoma is still controversial because the recurrence is an expression of tumor spread not controlled by oncological surgical and radio/chemo therapy.

Conclusion

In selected subjects such as the elderly, based on equal oncological treatment, the reduction of surgical trauma, preservation of anatomical integrity and resolution of symptoms are important results.

Sphincter-sparing surgery for adenocarcinoma of the distal 3 cm of the true rectum: results after neoadjuvant therapy and minimally invasive radical surgery or local excision

BACKGROUND

Ideal treatment of rectal cancer includes controlling the cancer; minimizing trauma, morbidity, and mortality; and avoiding a colostomy with preservation of adequate function. These goals become more challenging the further distal in the rectum the cancer is located. We sought to determine whether minimally invasive sphincter-preservation surgery (SPS) can accomplish good cancer control, maintaining sphincter function with minimal morbidity and mortality in rectal cancers of the distal 3 cm after receiving neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed a prospectively maintained rectal cancer database of a single colorectal surgeon to identify all patients with cancers of the distal 3 cm undergoing SPS via a laparoscopic total mesorectal excision or transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM). All patients received neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Patient data, including demographics, initial tumor characteristics, staging, radiation dose, perioperative morbidity and mortality, and local recurrence (LR) and survival, were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 161 patients (108 men) underwent SPS via 3 techniques: transanal abdominal transanal proctosigmoidectomy (TATA, n = 106), TEM (n = 49), or ultralow anterior resection (LAR, n = 6). Average age was 62 years (range 22-90 years). The mean levels in rectum from the anorectal ring were as follows: TATA, 1.3 cm (range -1.0 to 3.0 cm), TEM, 1.5 cm (range -0.5 to -3.0 cm), and LAR, 2.9 cm (range 2.5-3.0 cm) (p > 0.05). Preoperative T stage was as follows: T3, n = 108 (TATA 83, TEM 20, LAR 5), T2, n = 48 (TATA 22, TEM 25, LAR 1), T1, n = 3 (TATA 1, TEM 2), and T4, n = 2 (both TEM). All patients received concomitant 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy and radiotherapy (mean, 5300 cGy; range 3,000-7,295 cGy). The mean estimated blood loss was 376 ml (range 10-3,600 ml). There were no mortalities. Morbidity rates were as follows: LAR, 0; TATA, 13.2%; and TEM, 32 % (wound disruption: major, 10%; minor, 16%). Pathologic staging was as follows: ypCR: uT2, 34%, and uT3, 19%. Overall LR was 3.7%. By procedure, the follow-up, LR, and KM5YAS, respectively, were: TATA, 37.9 months, 3 and 95%; TEM, 36.3 months, 6 and 88%; and LAR, 63.1 months, 0 and 75% (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates positive oncologic outcomes, low LR rates, and high KM5YS after minimally invasive SPS. A colostomy-free lifestyle and cancer control make the minimally invasive surgical approach an excellent treatment option for complex distal rectal cancers.

Treatment of preoperatively diagnosed colorectal adenomas by transanal endoscopic microsurgery: the experience in China

INTRODUCTION

Colorectal adenoma is a recognized precancerous lesion that has the potential for malignant transformation. Surgical resection of colorectal adenomas is required for exact diagnosis and treatment. The aim of this study is to assess the safety and therapeutic effect of transanal endoscopic microsurgery for preoperatively diagnosed colorectal adenomas.

METHODS

From September 2006 to February 2011, 45 patients with preoperatively diagnosed colon and rectal adenomas underwent transanal endoscopic microsurgery. The clinical data of these patients were reviewed.

RESULTS

The mean tumor diameter was 2.2 cm, mean operative time was 65 min, and the mean estimated blood loss was less than 10 mL. There was no conversion to transabdominal procedure. The mean tumor distance from the anal verge was 8.2 cm. Four patients had perforation into the peritoneal cavity during full-thickness resection; these were repaired by continuous suturing, and there was no postoperative leakage after 1 week of fasting. The surgical margins of specimens were negative in 44 patients. Complications included rectal bleeding in one patient, acute urinary retention in one patient and pulmonary infection in one patient. The mean postoperative hospital stay was 4.5 days. Only one patient experienced incontinence of hard stool 6 months after surgery. The patients were followed up for a median period of 42 months, with four cases of tumor recurrence observed.

CONCLUSION

Transanal endoscopic microsurgery is a safe and effective technique for excising large adenomas in the mid and upper rectum and in the lower sigmoid colon. It is also an oncologically preferred method for T1 focal carcinomas that develop from villous adenomas.

Local excision after neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy in advanced rectal cancer: a national multicenter analysis

BACKGROUND

The aim of the current study was to evaluate the clinical availability of local excision (LE) for advanced rectal cancer without lymph node metastasis after neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy (nCRT) in Korea.

METHODS

From June 2000 to October 2009, 40 patients with cT2-3N0M0 rectal cancer underwent nCRT followed by LE according to a retrospective multicenter analysis.

RESULTS

Of the 40 patients, 22 were men and 18 were women. Eighteen patients were cT2, and 22 patients were cT3. The median follow-up duration was 38 months. Three patients (7.5%) had morbidity after LE. Four patients (10%) had recurrence (local recurrence [1 patient] and systemic metastasis [3 patients]). The 3-year disease-free survival rate was 85.9%. Only pCR was a recurrence-related prognostic factor (P = .040).

CONCLUSIONS

Although the current study was not a randomized controlled study, LE after nCRT in T2-3N0 rectal cancer patients appears to be a safe and effective treatment, especially in pCR patients.