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Bridge JA, Lee JC, Daud A, Wells JW, Bluestone JA. Cytokines, Chemokines, and Other Biomarkers of Response for Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy in Skin Cancer. Front Med (Lausanne) 2018; 5:351. [PMID: 30631766 PMCID: PMC6315146 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy for skin malignancies has ushered in a new era for cancer treatments by demonstrating unprecedented durable responses in the setting of metastatic Melanoma. Consequently, checkpoint inhibitors are now the first-line treatment of metastatic melanoma and widely used as adjuvant therapy for stage III disease. With the observation that higher tumor mutational burden correlates with a better response, checkpoint inhibitors are tested in other skin cancer types of known high tumor mutational burden with promising results and recently became the first-ever FDA-approved treatment for metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma. The emerging new standards-of-care will necessitate more precise biomarkers and predictors for treatment response and immune-related adverse events. Measurable immune-related mediators are currently under investigation as factors that promote or block the response to cancer immunotherapy and may provide insights into the underlying immune response to the tumor. Cytokines and chemokines are such mediators and are crucial for facilitating the recruitment and activation of specific subsets of leukocytes within the microenvironment of skin cancers. The exact mechanisms of how these meditators, both immunological and non-immunological, operate in the tumor microenvironment is an area of active research, so to reliable biomarkers of responses to cancer immunotherapy. Here, we will review and summarize the expanding body of literature for immune-related biomarkers pertaining to Melanoma, Basal cell carcinoma, Squamous cell carcinoma, and Merkel cell carcinoma, highlighting clinically relevant checkpoint inhibitor therapy biomarker advancements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Bridge
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - James C Lee
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Adil Daud
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - James W Wells
- The Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jeffrey A Bluestone
- Sean N. Parker Autoimmune Research Laboratory, Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
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Imiquimod-induced autophagy is regulated by ER stress-mediated PKR activation in cancer cells. J Dermatol Sci 2017; 87:138-148. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2017.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Bou-Dargham MJ, Khamis ZI, Cognetta AB, Sang QXA. The Role of Interleukin-1 in Inflammatory and Malignant Human Skin Diseases and the Rationale for Targeting Interleukin-1 Alpha. Med Res Rev 2016; 37:180-216. [PMID: 27604144 DOI: 10.1002/med.21406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation plays a major role in the induction and progression of several skin diseases. Overexpression of the major epidermal proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL) 1 alpha (IL-1α) and 1 beta (IL-1β) is positively correlated with symptom exacerbation and disease progression in psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, neutrophilic dermatoses, skin phototoxicity, and skin cancer. IL-1β and the interleukin-1 receptor I (IL-1RI) have been used as a therapeutic target for some autoinflammatory skin diseases; yet, their system-wide effects limit their clinical usage. Based on the local effects of extracellular IL-1α and its precursor, pro-IL-1α, we hypothesize that this isoform is a promising drug target for the treatment and prevention of many skin diseases. This review provides an overview on IL-1α and IL-β functions, and their contribution to inflammatory and malignant skin diseases. We also discuss the current treatment regimens, and ongoing clinical trials, demonstrating the potential of targeting IL-1α, and not IL-1β, as a more effective strategy to prevent or treat the onset and progression of various skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayassa J Bou-Dargham
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306.,Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306
| | - Zahraa I Khamis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306.,Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Lebanese University, Faculty of Sciences, Hadath-Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Armand B Cognetta
- Dermatology Associates of Tallahassee and Division of Dermatology, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, 32308
| | - Qing-Xiang Amy Sang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306.,Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306
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Wu CS, Chen GS, Lin PY, Pan IH, Wang ST, Lin SH, Yu HS, Lin CC. Tazarotene induces apoptosis in human basal cell carcinoma via activation of caspase-8/t-Bid and the reactive oxygen species-dependent mitochondrial pathway. DNA Cell Biol 2014; 33:652-66. [PMID: 24927175 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2014.2366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that tazarotene, a new member of the acetylenic class of RARβ/γ selective retinoids which is approved to treat a variety of skin diseases, exhibits an anti-proliferative effect in human basal cell carcinoma (BCC) by triggering caspase-dependent apoptosis. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-tumor activity of tazarotene are poorly understood. This study aims at investigating the molecular mechanisms of tazarotene-induced apoptosis in human BCC cells. Our results are the first to demonstrate that tazarotene induces mitochondria-dependent cleavage of caspase-9 and -3 and PARP in BCC cells by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activating caspase-8 through both ROS and death receptor signaling. These events are accompanied by a decrease in BCL-2 and BCL-xl anti-apoptotic proteins as well as by survivin and XIAP, two IAP family members. Furthermore, our results presented for the first time that tazarotene triggers a convergence of the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways via the caspase-8-truncated Bid signaling pathway. Collectively, these data provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying tazarotene-induced apoptosis in human BCC cells, suggesting that this compound is a potential anti-skin cancer drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chieh-Shan Wu
- 1 Department of Dermatology, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital , Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Hsiao YP, Yang JH, Wu WJ, Lin MH, Sheu GT. E6 and E7 of human papillomavirus type 18 and UVB irradiation corporately regulate interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 expressions in basal cell carcinoma. Exp Dermatol 2013; 22:672-4. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.12223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Wen-Jun Wu
- Institute of Medicine; School of Medicine; Chung Shan Medical University; Taichung City; Taiwan
| | - Meng-Hsuan Lin
- Institute of Medicine; School of Medicine; Chung Shan Medical University; Taichung City; Taiwan
| | - Gwo-Tarng Sheu
- Institute of Medicine; School of Medicine; Chung Shan Medical University; Taichung City; Taiwan
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Chu CY, Sheen YS, Cha ST, Hu YF, Tan CT, Chiu HC, Chang CC, Chen MW, Kuo ML, Jee SH. Induction of chemokine receptor CXCR4 expression by transforming growth factor-β1 in human basal cell carcinoma cells. J Dermatol Sci 2013; 72:123-33. [PMID: 23856244 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2013.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Higher CXCR4 expression enhances basal cell carcinoma (BCC) invasion and angiogenesis. The underlying mechanism of increased CXCR4 expression in invasive BCC is still not well understood. OBJECTIVE To investigate the mechanisms involved in the regulation of CXCR4 expression in invasive BCC. METHODS We used qRT-PCR, RT-PCR, Western blot, and flow cytometric analyses to examine different CXCR4 levels among the clinical samples, co-cultured BCC cells and BCC cells treated with recombinant transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF). Immunohistochemical studies were used to demonstrate the correlation between TGF-β1 and CXCR4 expressions. The signal transduction pathway and transcriptional regulation were confirmed by treatments with chemical inhibitors, neutralizing antibodies, or short interfering RNAs, as well as luciferase reporter activity. RESULTS Invasive BCC has higher TGF-β1 and CTGF levels compared to non-invasive BCC. Non-contact dermal fibroblasts co-culture with human BCC cells also increases the expression of CXCR4 in BCC cells. Treatment with recombinant human TGF-β1, but not CTGF, enhanced the CXCR4 levels in time- and dose-dependent manners. The protein level and surface expression of CXCR4 in human BCC cells was increased by TGF-β1 treatment. TGF-β1 was intensely expressed in the surrounding fibroblasts of invasive BCC and was positively correlated with the CXCR4 expression of BCC cells. The transcriptional regulation of CXCR4 by TGF-β1 is mediated by its binding to the TGF-β receptor II and phosphorylation of the extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2)-ETS-1 pathway. CONCLUSION TGF-β1 induces upregulation of CXCR4 in human BCC cells by phosphorylation of ERK1/2-ETS-1 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Yu Chu
- Department of Dermatology, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan; Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Toxicology, Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Cai H, Santiago FS, Prado-Lourenco L, Wang B, Patrikakis M, Davenport MP, Maghzal GJ, Stocker R, Parish CR, Chong BH, Lieschke GJ, Wong TW, Chesterman CN, Francis DJ, Moloney FJ, Barnetson RSC, Halliday GM, Khachigian LM. DNAzyme Targeting c-jun Suppresses Skin Cancer Growth. Sci Transl Med 2012; 4:139ra82. [DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3003960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Mcl-1 determines the imiquimod-induced apoptosis but not imiquimod-induced autophagy in skin cancer cells. J Dermatol Sci 2012; 65:170-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2011.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2011] [Revised: 10/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Arecoline decreases interleukin-6 production and induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human basal cell carcinoma cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012; 258:199-207. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Revised: 10/30/2011] [Accepted: 11/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Huang SW, Liu KT, Chang CC, Chen YJ, Wu CY, Tsai JJ, Lu WC, Wang YT, Liu CM, Shieh JJ. Imiquimod simultaneously induces autophagy and apoptosis in human basal cell carcinoma cells. Br J Dermatol 2010; 163:310-20. [PMID: 20426785 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09827.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Imiquimod shows antitumour activity through the stimulation of cell-mediated immunity in vivo. Recent studies have shown that imiquimod promotes apoptosis in melanoma cells and induces autophagy in macrophage cell lines. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the imiquimod-induced apoptosis, autophagy and their relationship in a basal cell carcinoma (BCC) cell line. METHODS Cell viability was determined by XTT test. Apoptosis was evaluated by DNA content assay, annexin V/propidium iodide staining assay and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labelling assay. Autophagy was determined by LC3 immunoblotting, EGFP-LC3 puncta formation and quantification of acidic vesicular organelles with acridine orange staining. The temporal and spatial differences of imiquimod-induced apoptosis and autophagy were examined by immunoblotting and simultaneously monitored by staining the EGFP-LC3 transfected cells with caspase 3 fluorogenic substrate. We inhibited the apoptosis and autophagy by pancaspase inhibitor and siRNA for Beclin 1 or Atg5, respectively, to evaluate the interplay between imiquimod-induced apoptosis and autophagy. RESULTS We found that imiquimod induces autophagy and apoptosis in BCC cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Imiquimod not only induced EGFP-LC3 puncta formation for autophagy, but also simultaneously activated an apoptotic caspase cascade in the same cells. Both apoptosis and autophagy induced by imiquimod cooperate to cause BCC cell death. However, inhibition of imiquimod-induced apoptosis increased the strength of autophagy, and inhibition of imiquimod-induced autophagy further promoted cell apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS This study not only demonstrates that imiquimod can directly induce autophagy and apoptosis in BCC cells, but also shows the cooperation and coordination between these two processes to induce cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- S-W Huang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Complement C1q activates tumor suppressor WWOX to induce apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5755. [PMID: 19484134 PMCID: PMC2685983 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2009] [Accepted: 05/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tissue exudates contain low levels of serum complement proteins, and their regulatory effects on prostate cancer progression are largely unknown. We examined specific serum complement components in coordinating the activation of tumor suppressors p53 and WWOX (also named FOR or WOX1) and kinases ERK, JNK1 and STAT3 in human prostate DU145 cells. Methodology/Principal Findings DU145 cells were cultured overnight in 1% normal human serum, or in human serum depleted of an indicated complement protein. Under complement C1q- or C6-free conditions, WOX1 and ERK were mainly present in the cytoplasm without phosphorylation, whereas phosphorylated JNK1 was greatly accumulated in the nuclei. Exogenous C1q rapidly restored the WOX1 activation (with Tyr33 phosphorylation) in less than 2 hr. Without serum complement C9, p53 became activated, and hyaluronan (HA) reversed the effect. Under C6-free conditions, HA induced activation of STAT3, an enhancer of metastasis. Notably, exogenous C1q significantly induced apoptosis of WOX1-overexpressing DU145 cells, but not vehicle-expressing cells. A dominant negative and Y33R mutant of WOX1 blocked the apoptotic effect. C1q did not enhance p53-mediated apoptosis. By total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, it was determined that C1q destabilized adherence of WOX1-expressing DU145 cells by partial detaching and inducing formation of clustered microvilli for focal adhesion particularly in between cells. These cells then underwent shrinkage, membrane blebbing and death. Remarkably, as determined by immunostaining, benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer were shown to have a significantly reduced expression of tissue C1q, compared to age-matched normal prostate tissues. Conclusions/Significance We conclude that complement C1q may induce apoptosis of prostate cancer cells by activating WOX1 and destabilizing cell adhesion. Downregulation of C1q enhances prostate hyperplasia and cancerous formation due to failure of WOX1 activation.
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Modification of alternative splicing of Mcl-1 pre-mRNA using antisense morpholino oligonucleotides induces apoptosis in basal cell carcinoma cells. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129:2497-506. [PMID: 19369967 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1, Mcl-1L) is an anti-apoptotic protein of the Bcl-2 family that acts as a critical molecule in apoptosis control. Mcl-1 pre-mRNA can undergo alternative splicing to yield the short isoform, Mcl-1S, which resembles BH3-only pro-apoptotic proteins and induces apoptosis. Overexpression of Mcl-1 may play a role in various human tumors, and Mcl-1 may serve as a target in cancer therapy. In this study, we found an imbalance between the expression levels of Mcl-1L and Mcl-1S in the skin basal cell carcinoma (BCC) cell line when compared with primary keratinocytes. We showed that overexpression of Mcl-1S induces apoptosis in BCC cells. Finally, we showed that Mcl-1 antisense morpholino oligonucleotides (AMOs) can specifically target Mcl-1 pre-mRNA and shift the splicing pattern from Mcl-1L to Mcl-1S mRNA and protein. This shift increases the level of pro-apoptotic Mcl-1S and reduces the level of anti-apoptotic Mcl-1L, which induces apoptosis in BCC cells and AGS cells, a human gastric adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line. Thus, this report provides a strategy for cancer therapy in which AMOs change the alternative splicing pattern of Mcl-1 pre-mRNA and thereby induce apoptosis.
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Chu CY, Cha ST, Lin WC, Lu PH, Tan CT, Chang CC, Lin BR, Jee SH, Kuo ML. Stromal cell-derived factor-1α (SDF-1α/CXCL12)-enhanced angiogenesis of human basal cell carcinoma cells involves ERK1/2–NF-κB/interleukin-6 pathway. Carcinogenesis 2008; 30:205-13. [DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgn228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
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Liu W, Baer MR, Bowman MJ, Pera P, Zheng X, Morgan J, Pandey RA, Oseroff AR. The tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib mesylate enhances the efficacy of photodynamic therapy by inhibiting ABCG2. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:2463-70. [PMID: 17438106 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-1599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The ATP-binding cassette protein ABCG2 (breast cancer resistance protein) effluxes some of the photosensitizers used in photodynamic therapy (PDT) and, thus, may confer resistance to this treatment modality. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) can block the function of ABCG2. Therefore, we tested the effects of the TKI imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) on photosensitizer accumulation and in vitro and in vivo PDT efficacy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Energy-dependent photosensitizer efflux and imatinib mesylate's effects on intracellular accumulation of clinically used second- and first-generation photosensitizers were studied by flow cytometry in murine and human cells with and without ABCG2 expression. Effects of ABCG2 inhibition on PDT were examined in vitro using cell viability assays and in vivo measuring photosensitizer accumulation and time to regrowth in a RIF-1 tumor model. RESULTS Energy-dependent efflux of 2-(1-hexyloxethyl)-2-devinyl pyropheophorbide-a (HPPH, Photochlor), endogenous protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) synthesized from 5-aminolevulenic acid, and the benzoporphyrin derivative monoacid ring A (BPD-MA, Verteporfin) was shown in ABCG2+ cell lines, but the first-generation multimeric photosensitizer porfimer sodium (Photofrin) and a novel derivative of HPPH conjugated to galactose were minimally transported. Imatinib mesylate increased accumulation of HPPH, PpIX, and BPD-MA from 1.3- to 6-fold in ABCG2+ cells, but not in ABCG2- cells, and enhanced PDT efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS Second-generation clinical photosensitizers are transported out of cells by ABCG2, and this effect can be abrogated by coadministration of imatinib mesylate. By increasing intracellular photosensitizer levels in ABCG2+ tumors, imatinib mesylate or other ABCG2 transport inhibitors may enhance efficacy and selectivity of clinical PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiguo Liu
- Department of Dermatology, Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263, USA
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Chu CY, Cha ST, Chang CC, Hsiao CH, Tan CT, Lu YC, Jee SH, Kuo ML. Involvement of matrix metalloproteinase-13 in stromal-cell-derived factor 1 alpha-directed invasion of human basal cell carcinoma cells. Oncogene 2006; 26:2491-501. [PMID: 17099730 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1210040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is one of the most common skin neoplasms in humans and is usually characterized by local aggressiveness with little metastatic potential, although deep invasion, recurrence, and regional and distant metastases may occur. Here, we studied the mechanism of BCC invasion. We found that human BCC tissues and a BCC cell line had significant expression of CXCR4, which was higher in invasive than non-invasive BCC types. Further, of 19 recurrent tumors among 390 BCCs diagnosed during the past 12 years, 17/19 (89.5%) had high CXCR4 expression. We found that the CXCR4 ligand, stromal-cell-derived factor 1alpha (SDF-1alpha), directed BCC invasion and that this was mediated by time-dependent upregulation of mRNA expression and gelatinase activity of matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13). The transcriptional regulation of MMP-13 by SDF-1alpha was mediated by phosphorylation of extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2 and activation of the AP-1 component c-Jun. Finally, CXCR4-transfected BCC cells injected into nude mice induced aggressive BCCs that co-expressed CXCR4 and MMP-13. The identification of SDF-1alpha/CXCR4 as an important factor in BCC invasiveness may contribute insight into mechanisms involved in the aggressive potential of human BCC and may improve therapy for invasive BCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C-Y Chu
- Department of Dermatology, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
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Gambichler T, Skrygan M, Hyun J, Bechara F, Tomi NS, Altmeyer P, Kreuter A. Cytokine mRNA expression in basal cell carcinoma. Arch Dermatol Res 2006; 298:139-41. [PMID: 16826314 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-006-0673-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2006] [Revised: 04/22/2006] [Accepted: 05/23/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
There is evidence that cytokines (CKs) play a significant role in the development and/or progression of skin cancer. The aim of the present study was to investigate the mRNA expression of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-8 in biopsy specimens of basal cell carcinoma (BCC), and to compare the results with the mRNA levels of non-lesional skin of BCC patients and healthy subjects. Skin samples were obtained from 22 patients with BCC (lesional, non-lesional) and 25 healthy subjects (controls). Routine histology and real-time RT-PCR was performed. Histological examination revealed 12 nodular BCCs and 10 superficial BCCs. The mRNA levels of CKs observed in healthy controls did not significantly (P > 0.05) differ from non-lesional CK levels of BCCs patients. However, IL-6 and IL-8 levels of lesional skin were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than the CK levels observed in non-lesional skin and controls, respectively. mRNA expression of IL-6 and IL-8 showed a significant positive correlation (r = 0.51; P < 0.05). There was no significant (P > 0.05) difference between lesional mRNA levels of TNF-alpha and those levels observed in non-lesional skin and controls. The mRNA expression of CKs found in nodular and superficial BCCs did not significantly differ (P > 0.05). BCC is associated with a significant increase of IL-6 and IL-8 expression. We have shown for the first time that upregulation of IL-6 mRNA significantly correlates with IL-8 overexpresssion. In accordance with previous studies our data suggest a role for IL-6 and IL-8 in the development and/or progression of BCC, since mRNA expression of both CKs are significantly increased in tumour tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Gambichler
- Department of Dermatology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Gudrunstr. 56, Bochum 44791, Germany.
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Zhang R, Burns FJ, Chen H, Chen S, Wu F. Alterations in gene expression in rat skin exposed to 56Fe ions and dietary vitamin A acetate. Radiat Res 2006; 165:570-81. [PMID: 16669712 DOI: 10.1667/rr3556.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present work was to examine gene expression patterns in rat skin exposed to a beam of (56)Fe ions, a surrogate for the high-energy, heavy-ion galactic radiation background, as a basis for obtaining a better understanding of the possible mechanism(s) behind the radioprotective activity of vitamin A. A 2 x 4-cm rectangle of dorsal rat skin was exposed to 1.01 GeV/nucleon (56)Fe ions generated by the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Gene expression patterns were monitored in either the presence or absence of a 250-ppm dietary supplement of vitamin A acetate in powdered lab chow. Although vitamin A and other retinoids show anti-carcinogenic activity in several animal models, the underlying changes in gene expression have not been examined extensively. At either 1 or 7 day after irradiation, a 1-cm square of irradiated and control rat skin was excised and analyzed using the Affymetrix rat microarray (RG_U34A) system. Microarray responses were displayed and processed by GeneSpring 7.0 and GOTree software. At 1 day after 3 Gy of (56)Fe-ion irradiation, the expression of 110 genes was significantly up-regulated (P < = 0.05) in comparison to levels in control rat skin, while no genes were altered by the vitamin A acetate supplement alone. Combined with (56)Fe-ion radiation, the vitamin A acetate supplement blocked the expression of 88 (80%) of the 110 genes and eliminated 16 of 18 gene categories that were significantly altered (all increased) by the (56)Fe-ion radiation. Categories with large numbers of genes eliminated by the retinoid included response to stress, 33 genes; response to biotic stimulus, 38 genes; signal transduction, 35 genes; and regulation of cellular/physiological process, 40 genes. Even for immune response and response to biotic stimulus, the only two categories that remained significantly altered in the presence of the vitamin, the combined number of altered genes was reduced from 74 to 13. No significant alterations in gene expression were found at 7 days relative to the numbers in controls. The results indicate that at 1 day dietary vitamin A acetate strongly interfered with (56)Fe-ion-induced gene expression within the broad categories of stimulus- and stress-related genes, implying that the latter gene categories likely play a role in the radioprotective action of the vitamin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronghe Zhang
- Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, New York 10987, USA
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Fang JY, Lee WR, Shen SC, Huang YL. Effect of liposome encapsulation of tea catechins on their accumulation in basal cell carcinomas. J Dermatol Sci 2006; 42:101-9. [PMID: 16423506 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2005.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2005] [Revised: 11/21/2005] [Accepted: 12/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND (-)-Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the main active polyphenol in green tea, is associated with antioxidant and anticancer activities. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using liposomes for intratumor distribution of EGCG and its derivative, (+)-catechin. METHOD Liposomes containing egg phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, or anionic surfactant in the presence of 15% ethanol were prepared. The physicochemical characteristics including vesicle size, zeta potential, drug entrapment, and drug release of liposomal formulations were determined. The liposomes containing EGCG were injected into basal cell carcinomas (BCCs), melanomas, and colon tumors to examine the tumor uptake of the drug. Liposomes were also incubated with a given number of BCC cells, and the cell viability was estimated. RESULT Almost no drug molecules were observed when free EGCG was administered to BCCs. EGCG encapsulated in liposomes with deoxycholic acid (DA) and ethanol increased drug deposition by 20-fold as compared to the free form. The larger vesicle size of this formulation was suggested to be the predominant factor governing this enhancement. The liposomes without ethanol showed low or negligible enhancement on EGCG uptake in BCCs. Liposomes protected EGCG from degradation, resulting in the induction of greater BCC death compared to that by free EGCG at lower concentrations. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the intratumor injection of liposomes containing EGCG with moderate modification is an effective approach for increasing EGCG deposition in BCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-You Fang
- Pharmaceutics Laboratory, Graduate Institute of Natural Products, Chang Gung University, Kweishan, Taoyuan, and Department of Dermatology, Taipei Medical Unversity Hospital, Taiwan.
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Wong TW, Wang YY, Sheu HM, Chuang YC. Bactericidal effects of toluidine blue-mediated photodynamic action on Vibrio vulnificus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49:895-902. [PMID: 15728881 PMCID: PMC549273 DOI: 10.1128/aac.49.3.895-902.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrio vulnificus is a gram-negative, highly invasive bacterium responsible for human opportunistic infections. We studied the antibacterial effects of toluidine blue O (TBO)-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) for V. vulnificus wound infections in mice. Fifty-three percent (10 of 19) of mice treated with 100 microg of TBO per ml and exposed to broad-spectrum red light (150 J/cm(2) at 80 mW/cm(2)) survived, even though systemic septicemia had been established with a bacterial inoculum 100 times the 50% lethal dose. In vitro, the bacteria were killed after exposure to a lower light dose (100 J/cm(2) at 80 mW/cm(2)) in the presence of low-dose TBO (0.1 microg/ml). PDT severely damaged the cell wall and reduced cell motility and virulence. Cell-killing effects were dependent on the TBO concentration and light doses and were mediated partly through the reactive oxygen species generated during the photodynamic reaction. Our study has demonstrated that PDT can cure mice with otherwise fatal V. vulnificus wound infections. These promising results suggest the potential of this regimen as a possible alternative to antibiotics in future clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tak-Wah Wong
- Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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Zhang Z, Liu W, Jia X, Gao Y, Hemminki K, Lindholm B. Use of pyrosequencing to detect clinically relevant polymorphisms of genes in basal cell carcinoma. Clin Chim Acta 2005; 342:137-43. [PMID: 15026274 DOI: 10.1016/j.cccn.2003.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2003] [Revised: 12/12/2003] [Accepted: 12/12/2003] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pyrosequencing is a new method to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is one of the most common neoplasms in the world, and its incidence has been increasing worldwide in recent years. BCC is caused by an interplay between genetic and environment factors. METHODS Pyrosequencing and restrict fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) were used in the study. We conducted a case-control association study in BCC cases and controls from Sweden. For SNPs in IL-6, IL-10 and IL-1beta, 241 cases were at the age of 27-70 years (mean 50 years) and 260 healthy controls were 26-71 years (mean 48 years), 241 cases were 27-70 years (mean 50 years) and 574 healthy controls were 22-74 years (mean 52 years) for cyclin D1 G870A, 197 cases were 29-69 years (mean 47 years) and 574 healthy controls were 22-74 years (mean 52 years) for MTHFR C677T and A1298C. Nine SNPs for IL-6-174G/C, -634G/C and -597G/A; IL-10-1082G/A and -592C/A; IL-1beta-511C/T; cyclin D1 G870A; MTHFR C677T and A1298C were analyzed. RESULTS Most genotype distributions were in accordance with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE), except IL-10-1082G/A, which had a significantly deviation from HWE in BCC cases (P<0.05). Linkage disequilibrium was observed between the -174 and -597 alleles in the IL-6 gene in the studied populations. The differences for cyclin D1 G870A and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) C677T were found between BCC cases group and control group (P<0.05, OR=1.34, 95% CI, 1.00-1.74; P<0.05, OR=1.67, 95% CI, 1.13-2.47, respectively). CONCLUSIONS Cyclin D1 G870A and MTHFR C677T were associated with BC cases from Sweden, the other SNPs studied here were not associated with BCC, but chance cannot be excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhong Zhang
- Pharmacy school, Zhengzhou University, Daxue Road 40, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
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Jee SH, Chiu HC, Tsai TF, Tsai WL, Liao YH, Chu CY, Kuo ML. The phosphotidyl inositol 3-kinase/Akt signal pathway is involved in interleukin-6-mediated Mcl-1 upregulation and anti-apoptosis activity in basal cell carcinoma cells. J Invest Dermatol 2002; 119:1121-7. [PMID: 12445202 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19503.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Dysregulation of interleukin-6 has been reported to be associated with various types of tumors, and interleukin-6 plays an important part in regulating apoptosis in many types of cells. Previously, Mcl-1 was shown to be significantly increased in interleukin-6-overexpressed basal cell carcinoma cells and conferred on them anti-apoptotic activity. The aim of this study was to investigate which signaling pathway is involved in the anti-apoptotic effect of interleukin-6 on basal cell carcinoma cells. Here we show that the addition of recombinant 100 ng per ml interleukin-6 to basal cell carcinoma cells induced a 2.3-fold increase in the level of Mcl-1 protein in basal cell carcinoma cells. Transfection with dominant-negative STAT3 (STAT3F) into inter-leukin-6-treated basal cell carcinoma cells caused a decrease of phosphotyrosyl STAT3 but did not alter Mcl-1 protein levels; however, AG490, a Janus tyrosine kinase inhibitor, was capable of inhibiting the interleukin-6-induced elevation of Mcl-1 protein. Next, interleukin-6 stimulation elicited extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation in basal cell carcinoma cells, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor, PD98059, could affect this response without affecting the interleukin-6-medi-ated Mcl-1 upregulation. Use of the two phosphotidyl inositol 3-kinase inhibitors, LY294002 and wortmannin, to check whether this pathway is involved in Mcl-1 upregulation by interleukin-6, we found that the phosphotidyl inositol 3-kinase inhibitors completely attenuated the interleukin-6-induced Mcl-1 upregulation. Furthermore, in the interleukin-6-overexpressing basal cell carcinoma cell clone, dominant-negative Akt also significantly reduced the increased level of Mcl-1. Interestingly, Janus tyrosine kinase inhibitor, AG490, treatment strongly blocked the phosphotidyl inositol 3-kinase pathway activation, as evidenced by the decrease in phospho-Akt level. Blockage of phosphotidyl inositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway abolished the interleukin-6-mediated anti-apoptotic activity in ultraviolet B treated cells. Unexpectedly, without ultraviolet B irradiation, STAT3F transfection also induced a significant apoptosis in basal cell carcinoma/interleukin-6 cells. Taken together, our data suggest that both the phosphotidyl inositol 3-kinase/Akt and STAT3 pathways are potentially involved in interleukin-6-mediated cell survival activity in basal cell carcinoma cells; however, the upregulation of the anti-apoptotic Mcl-1 protein by interleukin-6 is mainly through the Janus tyrosine kinase/phosphotidyl inositol 3-kinase/Akt, but not the STAT3 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Jee
- Department of Dermatology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taiwan
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Jee SH, Shen SC, Chiu HC, Tsai WL, Kuo ML. Overexpression of interleukin-6 in human basal cell carcinoma cell lines increases anti-apoptotic activity and tumorigenic potency. Oncogene 2001; 20:198-208. [PMID: 11313947 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1204076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2000] [Revised: 10/13/2000] [Accepted: 11/01/2000] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine that is capable of modulating the diverse functions of cells such as acute phase responses and inflammation. Excessive or insufficient production of IL-6 may contribute to certain diseases of the skin. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible role of IL-6 in the tumorigenesis of basal cell carcinoma (BCC). Initially, we transfected IL-6 expression vector, under the control of a CMV promoter, into human BCC cells and successfully obtained IL-6-overexpressing clones (BCC/IL-6-c1 and BCC/IL-6-c2) and a mixture (BCC/IL-6). DNA synthesis assay determined using (3)H-thymidine pulse incorporation revealed that IL-6-expressing BCC cells exhibited a much higher DNA synthesis rate than the neo control or parental BCC cells. We also detected a greater abundance of IL-6-expressing cell colonies formed in soft agar than in the vector control cells. Furthermore, BCC/IL-6 cells, but not vector control cells, were resistant to UV and photodynamic therapy (PDT)-induced apoptosis, as confirmed using DNA fragmentation and morphologic change analyses. Immunoblot analysis showed that Mcl-1, an anti-apoptotic protein, was specifically up-regulated IL-6 transfectants but not in the control cells. Transient transfection of IL-6 transfectants with antisense mcl-1 greatly enhanced their apoptosis frequency by UV treatment. In tumorigenesis assay, IL-6 transfected clones formed tumors in nude mice more rapidly than the control cells. These tumors appeared to be highly vascularized using pathological examination. Supportive of this finding, we found that IL-6 transfected cells expressed elevated levels of two angiogenic factors, cyclooxygenase (Cox)-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). These results suggest that overexpression of IL-6 enhances the tumorigenic activity of BCC cells by both suppressing apoptosis and actively promoting angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Jee
- Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Jee SH, Shen SC, Tseng CR, Chiu HC, Kuo ML. Curcumin induces a p53-dependent apoptosis in human basal cell carcinoma cells. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111:656-61. [PMID: 9764849 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00352.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Curcumin, a potent antioxidant and chemopreventive agent, has recently been found to be capable of inducing apoptosis in human hepatoma and leukemia cells by way of an elusive mechanism. Here, we demonstrate that curcumin also induces apoptosis in human basal cell carcinoma cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, as evidenced by internucleosomal DNA fragmentation and morphologic change. In our study, consistent with the occurrence of DNA fragmentation, nuclear p53 protein initially increased at 12 h and peaked at 48 h after curcumin treatment. Prior treatment of cells with cycloheximide or actinomycin D abolished the p53 increase and apoptosis induced by curcumin, suggesting that either de novo p53 protein synthesis or some proteins synthesis for stabilization of p53 is required for apoptosis. In electrophoretic mobility gel-shift assays, nuclear extracts of cells treated with curcumin displayed distinct patterns of binding between p53 and its consensus binding site. Supportive of these findings, p53 downstream targets, including p21(CIP1/WAF1) and Gadd45, could be induced to localize on the nucleus by curcumin with similar p53 kinetics. Moreover, we immunoprecipitated extracts from basal cell carcinoma cells with different anti-p53 antibodies, which are known to be specific for wild-type or mutant p53 protein. The results reveal that basal cell carcinoma cells contain exclusively wild-type p53; however, curcumin treatment did not interfere with cell cycling. Similarly, the apoptosis suppressor Bcl-2 and promoter Bax were not changed with the curcumin treatment. Finally, treatment of cells with p53 antisense oligonucleotide could effectively prevent curcumin-induced intracellular p53 protein increase and apoptosis, but sense p53 oligonucleotide could not. Thus, our data suggest that the p53-associated signaling pathway is critically involved in curcumin-mediated apoptotic cell death. This evidence also suggests that curcumin may be a potent agent for skin cancer prevention or therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Jee
- Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei
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