Hypovitaminosis D and secondary hyperparathyroidism in resident physicians of a general hospital in southern Brazil

Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in South America: a systematic review and meta-analysis

CONTEXT

Vitamin D deficiency is considered a global public health issue, even in low-latitude countries where there is abundant sunlight radiation. Nevertheless, the prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency in the South American continent has not been well characterized.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review was to estimate the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency (25-hydroxy-calciferol < 20 ng/mL) in South American populations.

DATA SOURCES

Seven electronic databases (MEDLINE, Web of Science, Embase, Biblioteca Virtual de Saúde, SciELO, Scopus, and Google Scholar) were searched systematically for observational studies published before July 1, 2021, and reporting vitamin D status of healthy adults in South America.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data were extracted using a standardized form. Risk of bias was assessed by the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Instrument for Studies Reporting Prevalence. All steps were conducted independently by two authors. Data were pooled using a random-effects model. Stratified meta-analysis and meta-regression were conducted (R software).

DATA ANALYSIS

Of 9460 articles identified, 96 studies with a total of 227 758 participants were included. The overall prevalence of vitamin D deficiency was 34.76% (79 studies; 95%CI, 29.68-40.21; I2 = 99%). There were significant differences in prevalence rates related to age, sex, country, latitude, season, and year of publication.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency is unexpectedly elevated in South American populations. Public health strategies should include efforts to prevent, detect, and treat vitamin D deficiency.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration number CRD42020169439.

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration among users of a referral outpatient unit for vascular diseases and associated factors

OBJECTIVE

Assess serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) concentration and associated factors among users of a referral outpatient unit for vascular diseases in Southern Brazil.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study conducted for almost one year, from March 2016 to January 2017. The serum vitamin D level was determined biochemically and classified as: sufficient (>50 nmol/L), insufficient (30-50 nmol/L) and deficient (<30 nmol/L). Associations were tested through multiple linear regression.

SETTING

At a reference outpatient clinic specialized in vascular diseases located in a southern Brazilian medium-sized city (latitude 29°S).

SUBJECTS

Consecutive sample of 133 individuals of both sexes, aged at least 40 years.

RESULTS

The mean serum 25OHD concentration was 54.9 ± 25.9 nmol/L (57.7 ± 27.9 nmol/L for men; 52.2 ± 24.2 nmol/L for women, p = 0.267). A total of 12.8% of the participants had vitamin D deficiency and 32.3% had insufficiency. Regarding the total sample, variables associated to the serum 25OHD concentration were: age (β = -0.55; CI95% -0.95; -0.17), sun exposure (β = 1.22; CI95% 0.32; 2.10) and vitamin D intake (β = 7.29; CI95% 2.10; 12.48). Among men, a significant association was observed for age (β = -0.82; CI95% -1.47; -0.17, p = 0.015) and borderline for sun exposure (β = 1.22; CI95% 0.32; 2.10, p = 0.053). Among women, only vitamin D intake was significantly associated with serum concentration of this vitamin (β = 8.74; CI95% 1.32; 16.17, p = 0.022).

CONCLUSION

Although the mean 25OHD concentration was greater than 50 nmol/L, about 45% of this consecutive sample presented poor vitamin D nutritional status. Unadjusted for seasonality, factors associated with serum 25OHD concentration were age and sun exposure among men and vitamin D intake among women.

Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in radiologists: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

To compare the prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency between radiologists and a control group of non-radiologists.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This prospective cross-sectional study was conducted at the Swiss Congress of Radiology in May of 2016. Attendees (radiologists and non-radiologists) were asked to give a venous blood sample to measure vitamin D (25-hydroxyvitamin D) blood serum level. Vitamin D insufficiency was defined as < 50 nmol/l (30 ng/ml). We collected information on profession, age, gender, vitamin D supplements, recent sunny vacation, and eating fish. We compared vitamin D between radiologists and non-radiologists.

RESULTS

A total of 137 radiologists (mean age, 38 ± 10 years) and 164 non-radiologists (mean age, 40 ± 12 years) participated in the study. Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in both groups was similar (58.4% (80/137) vs. 53.7% (88/164); p = 0.240). Forty-three participants were under vitamin D supplementation. In those without supplementation, we found no difference in vitamin D between groups (44.0 ± 16.2 nmol/l (17.6 ± 6.5 ng/ml) vs. 44.4 ± 16.9 nmol/l (17.8 ± 6.8 ng/ml); p = 0.757). Average vitamin D levels for radiologists were slightly lower (-0.98 nmol/l (0.39 ng/ml), 95% confidence interval - 5.96 to 4.00 (- 2.38 to 1.6 ng/ml); p = 0.699), when adjusting for the potential confounders, but not statistically significant. The odds ratio of vitamin D insufficiency for radiologists versus non-radiologists was 1.7 (95% CI = 0.94-3.06; p = 0.078) after adjusting for the other independent variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in radiologists was high (58.4%), but not substantially higher than in non-radiologists.

Vitamin D levels and deficiency with different occupations: a systematic review

Background

Vitamin D deficiency is prevalent worldwide, but some groups are at greater risk. We aim to evaluate vitamin D levels in different occupations and identify groups vulnerable to vitamin D deficiency.

Methods

An electronic search conducted in Medline, Embase, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and CINAHL Plus with Full Text generated 2505 hits; 71 peer-reviewed articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Occupations investigated included outdoor and indoor workers, shiftworkers, lead/smelter workers, coalminers, and healthcare professionals. We calculated the pooled average metabolite level as mean ± SD; deficiency/insufficiency status was described as % of the total number of subjects in a given category.

Results

Compared to outdoor workers, indoor workers had lower 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-(OH)D) levels (40.6 ± 13.3 vs. 66.7 ± 16.7 nmol/L; p < 0.0001). Mean 25-(OH)D levels (in nmol/L) in shiftworkers, lead/smelter workers and coalminers were 33.8 ± 10.0, 77.8 ± 5.4 and 56.6 ± 28.4, respectively. Vitamin D deficiency (25-(OH)D < 50 nmol/L), was high in shiftworkers (80%) and indoor workers (78%) compared to outdoor workers (48%). Among healthcare professionals, medical residents and healthcare students had the lowest levels of mean 25-(OH)D, 44.0 ± 8.3 nmol/L and 45.2 ± 5.5 nmol/L, respectively. The mean 25-(OH)D level of practising physicians, 55.0 ± 5.8 nmol/L, was significantly different from both medical residents (p < 0.0001) and healthcare students (p < 0.0001). Nurses and other healthcare employees had 25-(OH)D levels of 63.4 ± 4.2 nmol/L and 63.0 ± 11.0 nmol/L, respectively, which differed significantly compared to practising physicians (p = 0.01), medical residents (p < 0.0001) and healthcare students (p < 0.0001).

Rates of vitamin D deficiency among healthcare professionals were: healthcare students 72%, medical residents 65%, practising physicians 46%, other healthcare employees 44%, and nurses 43%. Combined rates of vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency (25-(OH)D < 75 nmol/L) were very high in all investigated groups.

Potential confounders such as gender and body composition were not consistently reported in the primary studies and were therefore not analyzed. Furthermore, the descriptions of occupational characteristics may be incomplete. These are limitations of our systematic review.

Conclusions

Our review demonstrates that shiftworkers, healthcare workers and indoor workers are at high risk to develop vitamin D deficiency, which may reflect key lifestyle differences (e.g. sunlight exposure). This may help target health promotion and preventive efforts.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4436-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Impact of a cholesterol membrane transporter's inhibition on vitamin D absorption: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study

Oral supplements are important to prevent and treat vitamin D deficiency. Despite the growing number of prescriptions, vitamin D's absorptive mechanisms are not clearly elucidated. By evaluating the effect of ezetimibe on vitamin D absorption, we aim to determine if the cholesterol transporter Niemann-Pick C1-Like 1 transporter contributes to it. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (ClinicalTrials.govNCT02234544) was developed in a South Brazilian University Hospital. Fifty-one medical students were randomized to ezetimibe 10mg/day or placebo for 5 days. On the fifth and 19th days, blood samples for 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25OHD), parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcium, and albumin were collected. After the first blood sample collection, all participants received a single oral 50,000 IU cholecalciferol dose during a 15 g-fat meal. Serum 25OHD levels were measured by the immunoassay Diasorin Liaison®. Measurements were compared in a general linear model adjusted for multiple comparisons by the Bonferroni test. Before cholecalciferol administration, 25OHD was <30 ng/mL and <20 ng/mL, respectively, in all and in 82.3% of the participants. Fourteen days after a single 50,000 IU oral dose of cholecalciferol, mean (SD) changes in serum 25OHD were similar in both groups, after adjustment to BMI and 25OHD levels before cholecalciferol administration (p=0.26): 8.7 (3.7) ng/mL in the ezetimibe group, versus 10.0 (3.8) ng/mL in the placebo group. Mean serum 25OHD, PTH, calcium and albumin levels remained similar in both groups. We conclude that ezetimibe had no effect on the mean change in serum 25OHD after a single oral dose of cholecalciferol, in these healthy and young adults.

Maternal-fetal impact of vitamin D deficiency: a critical review

Research into the extra-skeletal functions of vitamin D has been expanding in recent years. During pregnancy, maternal vitamin D status may be of concern because of the key role of this vitamin in fetal skeletal development and due to the association between hypovitaminosis D and adverse maternal-fetal outcomes. Therefore, the objective of this manuscript was to review the maternal-fetal impact of gestational vitamin D deficiency and the benefits of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy. A literature search was performed in PubMed and Embase employing the following keywords: vitamin D deficiency, pregnancy, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and hypovitaminosis D. All relevant articles in English language published since 1980 were analysed by the two authors. Neonatal complications derived from vitamin D deficiency include low birth weight, growth restriction, and respiratory tract infection. In the mother, vitamin D deficiency has been associated with altered glucose homeostasis and increased incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus, pre-eclampsia, and bacterial vaginosis. However, the current state of the evidence is controversial for some other endpoints and the actual benefit of vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy remains unclear. Additional longitudinal studies may clarify the actual impact of vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy, and randomised trials are required to define the benefits of vitamin D supplementation in reducing the incidence of adverse outcomes in the mother and infant.

Vitamin D deficiency among physicians: a comparison between hospitalists and community-based physicians

Physicians are indoor workers with low sun exposure. The aim of this study was to compare serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D(25(OH)D) levels among hospitalists and community-based physicians. 25(OH)D levels among hospitalist physicians were significantly lower than those among community-based physicians. Hospitalist physicians should be considered for vitamin D deficiency screening and replacement.

INTRODUCTION

Vitamin D deficiency is now recognized as a widespread phenomenon, even in a sunny, Mediterranean country such as Israel. Physicians may be vulnerable to low vitamin D levels due to long work hours and lack of sun exposure.

METHODS

Forty-three physicians employed in a hospital and 38 physicians who work in the community in Jerusalem were enrolled. Their serum 25(OH)D levels were measured, and a questionnaire was filled to assess the risk of vitamin D deficiency.

RESULTS

Mean serum levels of 25(OH)D among hospitalist physicians were significantly lower than those among community-based physicians (15 ± 6 vs. 19.7 ± 6 ng/ml, respectively; p < 0.00 l). Arab physicians had a lower 25(OH)D level compared to Jewish physicians (18.2 ± 6.6 vs. 11.4 ± 2.7 ng/ml; p < 0.001). After exclusion of Arab physicians from the analysis, 25(OH)D levels remained higher in hospitalist compared to community-based physicians (15.9 ± 6 vs. 20.4 ± 6 ng/ml; p < 0.004). The variables that were significantly linked to low mean serum levels of 25(OH)D were as follows: age, night shifts, daily sun exposure, and ethnic origin.

CONCLUSION

Hospitalist physicians are at greater risk for low vitamin D levels than community-based physicians.

Vitamin D levels and cytokine profiles in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the expression of Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and verify the association between serum cytokine levels and vitamin D concentration.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 172 patients with SLE. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels were measured by chemiluminescence and 25(OH)D levels <20 ng/mL were considered to reflect vitamin D deficiency. Serum cytokine levels were measured in once-thawed samples, using a Th1/Th2/Th17 CBA (cytometric beads array) kit.

RESULTS

One hundred and sixty-one (93.6%) patients were women and 128 (74.4%) were of European descent. Mean patient age was 40.5 ± 13.8 years, and mean age at diagnosis was 31.5 ± 13.4 years. At the time of study entry, patients had a median (IQR) SLEDAI of 2 (1-4) and SLICC of 0 (0-1). Mean 25(OH)D concentration was 25.4 ± 11.04 ng/mL. Fifty-nine (34.3%) patients had a vitamin D deficiency. No statistically significant associations were identified between cytokine and vitamin D levels. The most significant finding was a positive correlation between INF-α levels and SLEDAI (r(s) = 0.22, p = 0.04).

CONCLUSION

Although vitamin D deficiencies are highly prevalent in patients with SLE, vitamin D levels were not significantly associated with patient cytokine profiles. The positive correlation between IFN-α levels and SLEDAI showed in this study corroborates other findings in the literature. The present results did not replicate those of in vitro studies of the effect of vitamin D levels on cytokine profiles. Placebo-controlled intervention trials of the effect of vitamin D on cytokine profiles are still required before any definitive conclusions can be drawn regarding the association between these variables.

Vitamin D Status and VDR Genotype in NF1 Patients: A Case-Control Study from Southern Brazil

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) patients are more likely to have vitamin D deficiency when compared to the general population. This study aimed to determine the levels of 25-OH-vitamin D [25(OH)D] in individuals with NF1 and disease-unaffected controls and analyze FokI and BsmI VDR gene polymorphisms in a case and in a control group. Vitamin D levels were compared between a group of 45 NF1 patients from Southern Brazil and 45 healthy controls matched by sex, skin type, and age. Genotypic and allelic frequencies of VDR gene polymorphisms were obtained from the same NF1 patients and 150 healthy controls. 25(OH)D deficiency or insufficiency was not more frequent in NF1 patients than in controls (p = 0.074). We also did not observe an association between FokI and BsmI VDR gene polymorphisms and vitamin D levels in NF1 patients, suggesting that their deficient or insufficient biochemical phenotypes are not associated with these genetic variants. The differences between the groups in genotypic and allelic frequencies for FokI and BsmI VDR gene polymorphisms were small and did not reach statistical significance. These polymorphisms are in partial linkage disequilibrium and the haplotype frequencies also did not differ in a significant way between the two groups (p = 0.613).

Atopic dermatitis and vitamin D: facts and controversies

Patients with atopic dermatitis have genetically determined risk factors that affect the barrier function of the skin and immune responses that interact with environmental factors. Clinically, this results in an intensely pruriginous and inflamed skin that allows the penetration of irritants and allergens and predisposes patients to colonization and infection by microorganisms. Among the various etiological factors responsible for the increased prevalence of atopic diseases over the past few decades, the role of vitamin D has been emphasized. As the pathogenesis of AD involves a complex interplay of epidermal barrier dysfunction and dysregulated immune response, and vitamin D is involved in both processes, it is reasonable to expect that vitamin D's status could be associated with atopic dermatitis' risk or severity. Such association is suggested by epidemiological and experimental data. In this review, we will discuss the evidence for and against this controversial relationship, emphasizing the possible etiopathogenic mechanisms involved.

Vitamin D deficiency among medical residents and its relationship with metabolic indices

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate different elements of the calciotropic system in a group of house staff physicians, comparing them with age, gender, and body mass index (BMI) matched controls.

METHODS

We measured vitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid hormone (PTH), glucose, insulin (estimating the insulin resistance index by the homeostatic model [HOMA]), and lipid levels in 20 medical residents and 20 age-, gender-, and BMI-matched controls. We looked for correlations between elements of the calciotropic system and metabolic indices.

RESULTS

Medical residents and controls were similar in regard to gender distribution, weight, height, BMI, abdominal circumference, as well as systolic and diastolic blood pressure. No differences were found between the two groups in regard to low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol, plasma insulin levels, and HOMA-IR. Vitamin D and calcium levels were significantly lower among the medical residents (P = .001 and P = .003, respectively), whereas PTH concentrations tended to be higher. We found an inverse correlation between triglyceride concentrations and vitamin D (r = -0.31, P = .04).

CONCLUSION

Vitamin D deficiency among resident physicians is frequent and could have metabolic effects. Our findings highlight the consequences of the lack of sun exposure due to occupational reasons. We recommend a higher intake of vitamin D during this period.

[The vitamin D endocrine system]

The vitamin D endocrine system comprises a group of 7-dehydrocholesterol-derived secosteroid molecules, including its active metabolite 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D (1,25(OH)(2)D), its precursors and other metabolites, its binding protein (DBP) and nuclear receptor (VDR), as well as cytochrome P450 complex enzymes participating in activation and inactivation pathways of those molecules. The biologic effects of 1,25(OH)(2)D are mediated by VDR, a ligand-activated transcription factor which is a member of the nuclear receptors family, spread in almost all human cells. In addition to its classic role in the regulation of calcium metabolism and bone health, evidence suggests that 1,25(OH)(2)D directly or indirectly modulates about 3% of the human genome, participating in the regulation of chief functions of systemic homeostasis, such as cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis, regulation of immune, cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems, and insulin metabolism. Given the critical influence of the vitamin D endocrine system in many processes of systemic metabolic equilibrium, the laboratory assays available for the evaluation of this system have to present high accuracy and reproducibility, enabling the establishment of cutoff points that, beyond being consensually accepted, reliably express the vitamin D status of the organism, and the respective clinical-metabolic impacts on the global health of the individual.

Prevalência de deficiência de vitamina D em pacientes com úlceras de perna de etiologia venosa

OBJETIVO: Estudar se a prevalência da deficiência de vitamina D em indivíduos com úlcera de perna de causa venosa é maior do que em população controle. MÉTODOS: Estudaram-se os níveis séricos de 25-OH-vitamina D por quimioluminescência em 27 portadores de úlcera venosa crônica e 58 controles do Hospital Universitário Evangélico de Curitiba. RESULTADOS: Os níveis de 25-OH-vitamina D3 eram inferiores a 8 ng/dl em 11,1% dos pacientes com úlcera e 3,4% dos controles; entre 8 e 20 ng/dl em 46,1% dos pacientes com úlcera e 25,8% dos controles; entre 21 e 30 ng/dl em 22.2% dos pacientes com úlcera e 27,5% dos controles e acima de 30 ng/dl em 43,1% dos controles e 18,5% dos pacientes com úlcera (p=0,04). CONCLUSÃO: Existe aumento de prevalência de deficiência de vitamina D em pacientes com úlceras venosas crônicas de pernas.

The role of BsmI and FokI vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D in Brazilian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

Vitamin D deficiency has been described in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). BsmI VDR (vitamin D receptor) gene polymorphism was associated with SLE in Asian patients. Studies in Brazilian populations have not been realized. A case-control study with 195 SLE patients and 201 healthy controls was conducted to investigate the influence of BsmI and FokI VDR gene polymorphisms on susceptibility to SLE. In addition, 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] was measured in SLE patients to evaluate possible associations with VDR polymorphic variants and clinical and laboratory expressions of disease. Genotyping was performed by RFLP-PCR. The measurement of 25(OH)D was performed by chemiluminescence. There was no statistically significant difference in genotype and allelic frequencies of BsmI and FokI polymorphisms between European-derived cases and controls. The mean serum levels of 25(OH)D were 25.51 ± 11.43 ng/ml in SLE patients. According to genotype distribution, 25(OH)D concentrations were significantly higher in patients carrying the FokI f/f genotype compared with patients carrying the F/F genotype (31.6 ± 14.1 ng/ml versus 23.0 ± 9.2 ng/ml, p = 0.004), reinforcing its role in the functional activity of VDR. This feature may be considered in future clinical and experimental studies involving vitamin D measurements. Therefore, genetic-specific definitions of ideal levels of vitamin D in SLE need to be established in future studies.

Evaluation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D serum levels in patients with fibromyalgia

BACKGROUND

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a condition characterized by chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain often associated with sleep disorders and mood and whose pathophysiology is still not clearly defined. In recent years, some studies have hinted at a possible association between different types of pain, including the pain present in FM, with vitamin D deficiency.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

The present work consisted of a cross-sectional study aimed at evaluating 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) serum levels in 87 patients with FM, as compared with a control group composed of 92 age- and sex-matched subjects with no chronic musculoskeletal pain. Clinical and laboratory variables that could affect the status of vitamin D were also considered.

RESULTS

There was no statistically significant difference between groups either with respect to mean serum concentration of 25(OH)D or as to the classification of levels as deficient, insufficient, or sufficient. There was no correlation of 25(OH)D levels with pain intensity.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that light to moderate deficient and insufficient 25(OH)D levels are not found more commonly in patients with FM.

Hypovitaminosis D in developing countries-prevalence, risk factors and outcomes

Hypovitaminosis D is a prevalent disorder in developing countries. Clinical manifestations of hypovitaminosis D include musculoskeletal disorders, such as nonspecific muscle pain, poor muscle strength and low BMD, as well as nonmusculoskeletal disorders, such as an increased risk of respiratory infections, diabetes mellitus and possibly cardiovascular diseases. In developing countries, the prevalence of hypovitaminosis D varies widely by and within regions; prevalence ranges between 30-90%, according to the cut-off value used within specific regions, and is independent of latitude. A high prevalence of the disorder exists in China and Mongolia, especially in children, of whom up to 50% are reported to have serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels <12.5 nmol/l. Despite ample sunshine throughout the year, one-third to one-half of individuals living in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East have serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels <25 nmol/l, according to studies published in the past decade. Hypovitaminosis D is also prevalent in children and the elderly living in Latin America. Risk factors for hypovitaminosis D in developing countries are similar to those reported in Western countries and include extremes of age, female sex, winter season, dark skin pigmentation, malnutrition, lack of sun exposure, a covered clothing style and obesity. Clinical trials to assess the effect of vitamin D supplementation on classical and nonclassical clinical outcomes in developing countries are needed.

High prevalence of hypovitaminosis D and secondary hyperparathyroidism in elders living in nonprofit homes in South Brazil

OBJECTIVES

Hypovitaminosis D (HD) and secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHP) are common in elders, and many factors could contribute to them. The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of HD, SHP, and its associated factors, in individuals living in nonprofit homes for elders in south Brazil. Design Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D 25(OH)D, intact parathyroid hormone (PTH), total calcium, phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase, magnesium, creatinine, and albumin levels were measured in late spring, November, 2005. The presence of factors potentially related with HD and SHP-age, sex, weight, height, skin phototype, sun exposure, exercise, smoking, use of < or = 5 medications or diuretics or alcohol, and daily calcium ingestion.

RESULTS

102 subjects age 77.8 +/- 9.0 were included in the study. HD was found in 85.7% and SHP in 53% of the subjects. The estimated daily calcium ingestion was 720 mg. There was no association between serum 25(OH)D levels and any of the risk factors evaluated. Serum 25(OH)D levels were correlated with serum PTH (r = -0.358, P = 0.000), calcium (r = 0.306, P = 0.002), and albumin (r = 0.253, P = 0.011) levels. In univariate analysis, SHP was positively associated with age (P = 0.006), and female sex (0.007); and negatively associated with sunlight exposure (P = 0.020), GFR (P = 0.000), Ln25(OH)D (P = 0.002), and total serum calcium (P = 0.024). After multivariate model adjustment, age [OR 1.09 (CI 1.01-1.18); P = 0.024], Ln25(OH)D [OR 0.92 (CI 0.08-0.74); P = 0.013], GFR [OR 0.96 (CI 0.92-0.99); P = 0.013], and hydrochlorothiazide treatment [OR 7.63 (CI 1.67-34.9); P = 0.008] were independently associated with SHP.

CONCLUSIONS

HD and SHP are highly prevalent in elders living in old-age homes. No associations were established between common risk factors and low serum levels of 25(OH)D levels; however, SHP was independently related with age, 25(OH)D, GFR, and hydrochlorothiazide use.