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Witkin JM, Smith JL, Golani LK, Brooks EA, Martin AE. Involvement of muscarinic receptor mechanisms in antidepressant drug action. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2020; 89:311-356. [PMID: 32616212 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2020.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Conventional antidepressants typically require weeks of daily dosing to achieve full antidepressant response in antidepressant responders. A newly evolving group of compounds can engender more rapid response times in depressed patients. These drugs include the newly approved antidepressant (S)-ketamine (esketamine, Spravato). A seminal study by Furey and Drevets in 2006 showed antidepressant response in patients after only a few doses with the antimuscarinic drug scopolamine. Several clinical reports have generally confirmed scopolamine as a rapid-acting antidepressant. The data with scopolamine are consistent with the adrenergic/cholinergic hypothesis of mania/depression derived from clinical reports originating in the 1970s from Janowsky and colleagues. Additional support for a role for muscarinic receptors in mood disorders comes from the greater efficacy of conventional antidepressants that have relatively high levels of muscarinic receptor blocking actions (e.g., the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline vs the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine). There appears to be appreciable overlap in the mechanisms of action of scopolamine and other rapid-acting antidepressants (ketamine) or putative rapid-acting agents (mGlu2/3 receptor antagonists) although gaps exist in the experimental literature. Current hypotheses regarding the mechanisms underlying the rapid antidepressant response to scopolamine posit an M1 receptor subtype-initiated cascade of biological events that involve the amplification of AMPA receptors. Consequent impact on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and mTor signaling pathways result in the induction of dendritic spines that enable augmented functional connectivity in brain areas regulating mood. Two major goals for research in this area focus on finding ways in which scopolamine might best be utilized for depressed patients and the discovery of alternative compounds that improve upon the efficacy and safety of scopolamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Witkin
- Witkin Consulting Group, Carmel, IN, United States; Departments of Neuroscience and Trauma Research, Ascension St. Vincent Hospital, Indianapolis, IN, United States; Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, United States.
| | - Jodi L Smith
- Peyton Manning Children's Hospital, Ascension St. Vincent, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Lalit K Golani
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, United States
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Demin KA, Sysoev M, Chernysh MV, Savva AK, Koshiba M, Wappler-Guzzetta EA, Song C, De Abreu MS, Leonard B, Parker MO, Harvey BH, Tian L, Vasar E, Strekalova T, Amstislavskaya TG, Volgin AD, Alpyshov ET, Wang D, Kalueff AV. Animal models of major depressive disorder and the implications for drug discovery and development. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 14:365-378. [PMID: 30793996 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1575360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Depression is a highly debilitating psychiatric disorder that affects the global population and causes severe disabilities and suicide. Depression pathogenesis remains poorly understood, and the disorder is often treatment-resistant and recurrent, necessitating the development of novel therapies, models and concepts in this field. Areas covered: Animal models are indispensable for translational biological psychiatry, and markedly advance the study of depression. Novel approaches continuously emerge that may help untangle the disorder heterogeneity and unclear categories of disease classification systems. Some of these approaches include widening the spectrum of model species used for translational research, using a broader range of test paradigms, exploring new pathogenic pathways and biomarkers, and focusing more closely on processes beyond neural cells (e.g. glial, inflammatory and metabolic deficits). Expert opinion: Dividing the core symptoms into easily translatable, evolutionarily conserved phenotypes is an effective way to reevaluate current depression modeling. Conceptually novel approaches based on the endophenotype paradigm, cross-species trait genetics and 'domain interplay concept', as well as using a wider spectrum of model organisms and target systems will enhance experimental modeling of depression and antidepressant drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin A Demin
- a Institute of Experimental Medicine , Almazov National Medical Research Centre , St. Petersburg , Russia.,b Institute of Translational Biomedicine , St. Petersburg State University , St. Petersburg , Russia
| | - Maxim Sysoev
- c Laboratory of Preclinical Bioscreening , Russian Research Center for Radiology and Surgical Technologies , St. Petersburg , Russia.,d Institute of Experimental Medicine , St. Petersburg , Russia
| | - Maria V Chernysh
- b Institute of Translational Biomedicine , St. Petersburg State University , St. Petersburg , Russia
| | - Anna K Savva
- e Faculty of Biology , St. Petersburg State University , St. Petersburg , Russia
| | | | | | - Cai Song
- h Research Institute of Marine Drugs and Nutrition , Guangdong Ocean University , Zhanjiang , China.,i Marine Medicine Development Center, Shenzhen Institute , Guangdong Ocean University , Shenzhen , China
| | - Murilo S De Abreu
- j Bioscience Institute , University of Passo Fundo (UPF) , Passo Fundo , Brazil
| | | | - Matthew O Parker
- l Brain and Behaviour Lab , School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Portsmouth , Portsmouth , UK
| | - Brian H Harvey
- m Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences , Division of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, North-West University , Potchefstroom , South Africa
| | - Li Tian
- n Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine , University of Tartu , Tartu , Estonia
| | - Eero Vasar
- n Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine , University of Tartu , Tartu , Estonia
| | - Tatyana Strekalova
- o Laboratory of Psychiatric Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, and Department of Normal Physiology , Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University , Moscow , Russia.,p Laboratory of Cognitive Dysfunctions , Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology , Moscow , Russia.,q Department of Neuroscience , Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands
| | | | - Andrey D Volgin
- g The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC) , Slidell , LA , USA.,r Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Erik T Alpyshov
- s School of Pharmacy , Southwest University , Chongqing , China
| | - Dongmei Wang
- s School of Pharmacy , Southwest University , Chongqing , China
| | - Allan V Kalueff
- s School of Pharmacy , Southwest University , Chongqing , China.,t Almazov National Medical Research Centre , St. Petersburg , Russia.,u Ural Federal University , Ekaterinburg , Russia.,v Granov Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies , St. Petersburg , Russia.,w Laboratory of Biological Psychiatry, Institute of Translational Biomedicine , St. Petersburg State University , St. Petersburg , Russia.,x Laboratory of Translational Biopsychiatry , Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia.,y ZENEREI Institute , Slidell , LA , USA.,z The International Stress and Behavior Society (ISBS), US HQ , New Orleans , LA , USA
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3
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Kott J, Mooney-Leber S, Li J, Brummelte S. Elevated stress hormone levels and antidepressant treatment starting before pregnancy affect maternal care and litter characteristics in an animal model of depression. Behav Brain Res 2018; 348:101-114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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West CHK, Boss-Williams KA, Ritchie JC, Weiss JM. Reprint of: Locus coeruleus neuronal activity determines proclivity to consume alcohol in a selectively-bred line of rats that readily consumes alcohol. Alcohol 2016; 50:91-105. [PMID: 26873226 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2016.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Sprague-Dawley rats selectively-bred for susceptibility to stress in our laboratory (Susceptible, or SUS rats) voluntarily consume large amounts of alcohol, and amounts that have, as shown here, pharmacological effects, which normal rats will not do. In this paper, we explore neural events in the brain that underlie this propensity to readily consume alcohol. Activity of locus coeruleus neurons (LC), the major noradrenergic cell body concentration in the brain, influences firing of ventral tegmentum dopaminergic cell bodies of the mesocorticolimbic system (VTA-DA neurons), which mediate rewarding aspects of alcohol. We tested the hypothesis that in SUS rats alcohol potently suppresses LC activity to markedly diminish LC-mediated inhibition of VTA-DA neurons, which permits alcohol to greatly increase VTA-DA activity and rewarding aspects of alcohol. Electrophysiological single-unit recording of LC and VTA-DA activity showed that in SUS rats alcohol decreased LC burst firing much more than in normal rats and as a result markedly increased VTA-DA activity in SUS rats while having no such effect in normal rats. Consistent with this, in a behavioral test for reward using conditioned place preference (CPP), SUS rats showed alcohol, given by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection, to be rewarding. Next, manipulation of LC activity by microinfusion of drugs into the LC region of SUS rats showed that (a) decreasing LC activity increased alcohol intake and increasing LC activity decreased alcohol intake in accord with the formulation described above, and (b) increasing LC activity blocked both the rewarding effect of alcohol in the CPP test and the usual alcohol-induced increase in VTA-DA single-unit activity seen in SUS rats. An important ancillary finding in the CPP test was that an increase in LC activity was rewarding by itself, while a decrease in LC activity was aversive; consequently, effects of LC manipulations on alcohol-related reward in the CPP test were perhaps even larger than evident in the test. Finally, when increased LC activity was associated with (i.e., conditioned to) i.p. alcohol, subsequent alcohol consumption by SUS rats was markedly reduced, indicating that SUS rats consume large amounts of alcohol because of rewarding physiological consequences requiring increased VTA-DA activity. The findings reported here are consistent with the view that the influence of alcohol on LC activity leading to changes in VTA-DA activity strongly affects alcohol-mediated reward, and may well be the basis of the proclivity of SUS rats to avidly consume alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles H K West
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Katherine A Boss-Williams
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - James C Ritchie
- Department of Pathology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jay M Weiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Qi CC, Shu YM, Chen FH, Ding YQ, Zhou JN. Sensitivity during the forced swim test is a key factor in evaluating the antidepressant effects of abscisic acid in mice. Behav Brain Res 2015; 300:106-13. [PMID: 26698394 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Abscisic acid (ABA), a crucial phytohormone, is distributed in the brains of mammals and has been shown to have antidepressant effects in the chronic unpredictable mild stress test. The forced swim test (FST) is another animal model that can be used to assess antidepressant-like behavior in rodents. Here, we report that the antidepressant effects of ABA are associated with sensitivities to the FST in mice. Based on mean immobility in the 5-min forced swim pre-test, ICR mice were divided into short immobility mice (SIM) and long immobility mice (LIM) substrains. FST was carried out 8 days after drug administration. Learned helplessness, as shown by increased immobility, was only observed in SIM substrain and could be prevented by an 8-day ABA treatment. Our results show that ABA has antidepressant effects in SIM substrain and suggest that mice with learned helplessness might be more suitable for screening potential antidepressant drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong-Cong Qi
- Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias, Ministry of Education of China, East Hospital, and Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200120, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Diseases, School of Life Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Yu-Mian Shu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Diseases, School of Life Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Fang-Han Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Diseases, School of Life Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Yu-Qiang Ding
- Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias, Ministry of Education of China, East Hospital, and Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200120, China
| | - Jiang-Ning Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Diseases, School of Life Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, Anhui, China.
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Kokras N, Antoniou K, Mikail HG, Kafetzopoulos V, Papadopoulou-Daifoti Z, Dalla C. Forced swim test: What about females? Neuropharmacology 2015; 99:408-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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7
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West CHK, Boss-Williams KA, Ritchie JC, Weiss JM. Locus coeruleus neuronal activity determines proclivity to consume alcohol in a selectively-bred line of rats that readily consumes alcohol. Alcohol 2015; 49:691-705. [PMID: 26496795 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2015.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Sprague-Dawley rats selectively-bred for susceptibility to stress in our laboratory (Susceptible, or SUS rats) voluntarily consume large amounts of alcohol, and amounts that have, as shown here, pharmacological effects, which normal rats will not do. In this paper, we explore neural events in the brain that underlie this propensity to readily consume alcohol. Activity of locus coeruleus neurons (LC), the major noradrenergic cell body concentration in the brain, influences firing of ventral tegmentum dopaminergic cell bodies of the mesocorticolimbic system (VTA-DA neurons), which mediate rewarding aspects of alcohol. We tested the hypothesis that in SUS rats alcohol potently suppresses LC activity to markedly diminish LC-mediated inhibition of VTA-DA neurons, which permits alcohol to greatly increase VTA-DA activity and rewarding aspects of alcohol. Electrophysiological single-unit recording of LC and VTA-DA activity showed that in SUS rats alcohol decreased LC burst firing much more than in normal rats and as a result markedly increased VTA-DA activity in SUS rats while having no such effect in normal rats. Consistent with this, in a behavioral test for reward using conditioned place preference (CPP), SUS rats showed alcohol, given by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection, to be rewarding. Next, manipulation of LC activity by microinfusion of drugs into the LC region of SUS rats showed that (a) decreasing LC activity increased alcohol intake and increasing LC activity decreased alcohol intake in accord with the formulation described above, and (b) increasing LC activity blocked both the rewarding effect of alcohol in the CPP test and the usual alcohol-induced increase in VTA-DA single-unit activity seen in SUS rats. An important ancillary finding in the CPP test was that an increase in LC activity was rewarding by itself, while a decrease in LC activity was aversive; consequently, effects of LC manipulations on alcohol-related reward in the CPP test were perhaps even larger than evident in the test. Finally, when increased LC activity was associated with (i.e., conditioned to) i.p. alcohol, subsequent alcohol consumption by SUS rats was markedly reduced, indicating that SUS rats consume large amounts of alcohol because of rewarding physiological consequences requiring increased VTA-DA activity. The findings reported here are consistent with the view that the influence of alcohol on LC activity leading to changes in VTA-DA activity strongly affects alcohol-mediated reward, and may well be the basis of the proclivity of SUS rats to avidly consume alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles H K West
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Katherine A Boss-Williams
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - James C Ritchie
- Department of Pathology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jay M Weiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building (WMB), 4th Floor, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Pereira-Figueiredo I, Sancho C, Carro J, Castellano O, López DE. The effects of sertraline administration from adolescence to adulthood on physiological and emotional development in prenatally stressed rats of both sexes. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:260. [PMID: 25147514 PMCID: PMC4123728 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Sertraline (SERT) is a clinically effective Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) known to increase and stabilize serotonin levels. This neurotransmitter plays an important role in adolescent brain development in both rodents and humans, and its dysregulation has been correlated with deficits in behavior and emotional regulation. Since prenatal stress may disturb serotoninergic homeostasis, the aim of this study was to examine the long-lasting effects of exposure to SERT throughout adolescence on behavioral and physiological developmental parameters in prenatally stressed Wistar rats. SERT was administered (5 mg/kg/day p.o.) from the age of 1-3 months to half of the progeny, of both sexes, of gestating dams stressed by use of a restraint (PS) or not stressed. Our data reveal that long-term SERT treatment slightly reduced weight gain in both sexes, but reversed the developmental disturbed "catch-up" growth found in PS females. Neither prenatal stress nor SERT treatment induced remarkable alterations in behavior and had no effects on mean startle reflex values. However, a sex-dependent effects of PS was found: in males the PS paradigm slightly increased anxiety-like behavior in the open field, while in females, it impaired startle habituation. In both cases, SERT treatment reversed the phenomena. Additionally, the PS animals exhibited a disturbed leukocyte profile in both sexes, which was reversed by SERT. The present findings are evidence that continuous SERT administration from adolescence through adulthood is safe in rodents and lessens the impact of prenatal stress in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Consuelo Sancho
- Neuroscience Institute of Castilla y León (INCYL), University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
| | - Juan Carro
- Neuroscience Institute of Castilla y León (INCYL), University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
| | - Orlando Castellano
- Neuroscience Institute of Castilla y León (INCYL), University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology and Pathology, University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
| | - Dolores E. López
- Neuroscience Institute of Castilla y León (INCYL), University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology and Pathology, University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
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9
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Kokras N, Dalla C. Sex differences in animal models of psychiatric disorders. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:4595-619. [PMID: 24697577 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychiatric disorders are characterized by sex differences in their prevalence, symptomatology and treatment response. Animal models have been widely employed for the investigation of the neurobiology of such disorders and the discovery of new treatments. However, mostly male animals have been used in preclinical pharmacological studies. In this review, we highlight the need for the inclusion of both male and female animals in experimental studies aiming at gender-oriented prevention, diagnosis and treatment of psychiatric disorders. We present behavioural findings on sex differences from animal models of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance-related disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and autism. Moreover, when available, we include studies conducted across different stages of the oestrous cycle. By inspection of the relevant literature, it is obvious that robust sex differences exist in models of all psychiatric disorders. However, many times results are conflicting, and no clear conclusion regarding the direction of sex differences and the effect of the oestrous cycle is drawn. Moreover, there is a lack of considerable amount of studies using psychiatric drugs in both male and female animals, in order to evaluate the differential response between the two sexes. Notably, while in most cases animal models successfully mimic drug response in both sexes, test parameters and treatment-sensitive behavioural indices are not always the same for male and female rodents. Thus, there is an increasing need to validate animal models for both sexes and use standard procedures across different laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Kokras
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, University of Athens, Greece; First Department of Psychiatry, Eginition Hospital, Medical School, University of Athens, Greece
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Warner TA, Stafford NP, Rompala GR, Van Hoogenstyn AJ, Elgert E, Drugan RC. Intermittent swim stress causes Morris water maze performance deficits in a massed-learning trial procedure that are exacerbated by reboxetine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 113:12-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Revised: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Effects of chronic mild stress on rats selectively bred for behavior related to bipolar disorder and depression. Physiol Behav 2013; 119:115-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Zoladz PR, Fleshner M, Diamond DM. Differential effectiveness of tianeptine, clonidine and amitriptyline in blocking traumatic memory expression, anxiety and hypertension in an animal model of PTSD. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 44:1-16. [PMID: 23318688 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Revised: 12/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Individuals exposed to life-threatening trauma are at risk for developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a debilitating condition that involves persistent anxiety, intrusive memories and several physiological disturbances. Current pharmacotherapies for PTSD manage only a subset of these symptoms and typically have adverse side effects which limit their overall effectiveness. We evaluated the effectiveness of three different pharmacological agents to ameliorate a broad range of PTSD-like symptoms in our established predator-based animal model of PTSD. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were given 1-h cat exposures on two occasions that were separated by 10 days, in conjunction with chronic social instability. Beginning 24 h after the first cat exposure, rats received daily injections of amitriptyline, clonidine, tianeptine or vehicle. Three weeks after the second cat exposure, all rats underwent a battery of behavioral and physiological tests. The vehicle-treated, psychosocially stressed rats demonstrated a robust fear memory for the two cat exposures, as well as increased anxiety expressed on the elevated plus maze, an exaggerated startle response, elevated heart rate and blood pressure, reduced growth rate and increased adrenal gland weight, relative to the vehicle-treated, non-stressed (control) rats. Neither amitriptyline nor clonidine was effective at blocking the entire cluster of stress-induced sequelae, and each agent produced adverse side effects in control subjects. Only the antidepressant tianeptine completely blocked the effects of psychosocial stress on all of the physiological and behavioral measures that were examined. These findings illustrate the differential effectiveness of these three treatments to block components of PTSD-like symptoms in rats, and in particular, reveal the profile of tianeptine as the most effective of all three agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip R Zoladz
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, USA
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Harrell CS, Hardy E, Boss-Williams K, Weiss JM, Neigh GN. Sex and lineage interact to predict behavioral effects of chronic adolescent stress in rats. Behav Brain Res 2013; 248:57-61. [PMID: 23583793 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Revised: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric disorders often derive from environmental influences that occur at important stages of development and interact with genetics. This study examined the effects of stress during adolescence in rats selectively bred for different behavioral responses to stress. The effects of chronic adolescent stress were compared between rats selected for susceptibility to reduced activity following acute stress (Swim-test Susceptible rats) and rats resistant to activity reduction after acute stress (Swim-test Resistant rats). Consistent with lineage, exposure to chronic adolescent stress increased swim-test activity of the Swim-test Resistant rats while tending to reduce activity of the Swim-test Susceptible rats. Consistent with the increased activity demonstrated post-stress in the swim test, chronic adolescent stress increased total activity in the open field for Swim-test Resistant rats. Indicative of anhedonia, chronic adolescent stress exposure decreased sucrose consumption in both male and female Swim-test Resistant rats but only in female Swim-test Susceptible rats. Although chronic stress induced changes in behavior across both breeding lines, the precise manifestation of the behavioral change was dependent on both breeding line and sex. Collectively, these data indicate that selective breeding interacts with chronic stress exposure during adolescence to dictate behavioral outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constance S Harrell
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Rovin ML, Boss-Williams KA, Alisch RS, Ritchie JC, Weinshenker D, West CH, Weiss JM. Influence of chronic administration of antidepressant drugs on mRNA for galanin, galanin receptors, and tyrosine hydroxylase in catecholaminergic and serotonergic cell-body regions in rat brain. Neuropeptides 2012; 46:81-91. [PMID: 22317959 PMCID: PMC3759228 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2012.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Revised: 11/11/2011] [Accepted: 01/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Activity of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons and release of the peptide galanin (GAL), which is colocalized with norepinephrine (NE) in LC neurons, has been implicated in depression and, conversely, in antidepressant action. The present study examined the influence of chronic administration (for 14days, via subcutaneously-implanted minipump) of antidepressant (AD) drugs representing three different classes (tricyclic [desipramine], selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor [SSRI] [paroxetine], and monoamine oxidase inhibitor [MAOI] [phenelzine]) on mRNA for GAL, GAL receptors (GalR1, GalR2, and GalR3), and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme for NE synthesis, in four brain regions--LC, A1/C1, dorsal raphe (DRN), and ventral tegmentum (VTA) of rats. Consistent with previous findings that chronic administration of AD drugs decreases activity of LC neurons, administration of AD drugs reduced mRNA for both GAL and TH in LC neurons. GAL and TH mRNA in LC neurons was highly correlated. AD drugs also reduced GAL and TH mRNA in A1/C1 and VTA but effects were smaller than in LC. The largest change in mRNA for GAL receptors produced by AD administration was to decrease mRNA for GalR2 receptors in the VTA region. Also, mRNA for GalR2 and GalR3 receptors was significantly (positively) correlated in all three predominantly catecholaminergic brain regions (LC, A1/C1, and VTA). Relative to these three brain regions, unique effects were seen in the DRN region, with the SSRI elevating GAL mRNA and with mRNA for GalR1 and GalR3 being highly correlated in this brain region. The findings show that chronic administration of AD drugs, which produces effective antidepressant action, results in changes in mRNA for GAL, GAL receptors, and TH in brain regions that likely participate in depression and antidepressant effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - James C. Ritchie
- Department of Pathology Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta, GA, USA
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West CH, Boss-Williams KA, Weiss JM. Effects of fenfluramine, 8-OH-DPAT, and tryptophan-enriched diet on the high-ethanol intake by rats bred for susceptibility to stress. Alcohol 2011; 45:739-49. [PMID: 21924578 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2011.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The swim-test susceptible (SUS) line of rats has been bred in our laboratory for the characteristic of reduced motor activity in the swim test following exposure to an acute stressor. Testing of multiple generations of SUS rats has also revealed that they consume large amounts of ethanol voluntarily. As reported for lines of rats that show a propensity for high-ethanol intake, the SUS rats show evidence of low serotonergic function. Because serotonergic function has often been shown to be involved in the regulation of alcohol consumption, here we examined the effects of manipulations of serotonin transmission on intake of ethanol by SUS rats. Fenfluramine, a serotonin-releasing drug, was injected at various doses (0.625, 1.25, 2.5, and 5.0mg/kg) twice per day and ethanol intake was measured using a two-bottle free-choice method. The 8-OH-DPAT, a 5‑HT(1A) agonist, was injected at various doses (0.03125, 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0mg/kg) before a 1-h session of exposure to ethanol (single-bottle test, water available the other 23h per day). A diet enriched with 3% tryptophan (TRP), the amino acid precursor for serotonin synthesis, was administered in a restricted feeding schedule (5h per day) with ethanol intake measured the last 4h. Fenfluramine decreased ethanol intake at all doses tested. The 8-OH-DPAT increased ethanol intake at lower doses, presumably acting at autoreceptors, which inhibit serotonergic neurons, and decreased intake at higher doses, presumably acting at postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptors. TRP-enriched diet also significantly decreased ethanol intake. Food and water intake were less or unaffected by these three manipulations. With all three manipulations, ethanol intake remained suppressed one or more days after the day of tests that decreased ethanol intake. These data suggest that SUS rats, like many other lines/strains of rodents that consume large amounts of alcohol, show an inverse relationship between serotonin transmission and voluntary intake of ethanol.
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Bertholomey ML, West CHK, Jensen ML, Li TK, Stewart RB, Weiss JM, Lumeng L. Genetic propensities to increase ethanol intake in response to stress: studies with selectively bred swim test susceptible (SUS), alcohol-preferring (P), and non-preferring (NP) lines of rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 218:157-67. [PMID: 21706134 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2381-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Swim test susceptible (SUS) rats selectively bred for reduced struggling in the forced swim test (FST) following stress show high voluntary ethanol intake like alcohol-preferring (P) rats selectively bred for ethanol preference. It is unknown whether stress enhances drinking in SUS rats or FST behavior in P and non-preferring (NP) rats. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to assess the response to stress in male SUS, Sprague-Dawley (SD), P, and NP rats on 10% ethanol drinking and FST behavior. METHODS In experiment 1, SUS and SD rats had limited access to ethanol and water following white noise, rehousing, and forced swim stress. In experiment 2, P and NP rats received footshock, white noise, restraint, or no stress prior to the FST. Rats then had continuous access to ethanol and water, and the effects of weekly exposures to stress were measured. RESULTS SUS rats drank more ethanol (M = 2.98 g/kg) than SD rats (M = 1.26 g/kg) at baseline. Stress produced sustained increases (~33% of baseline) in ethanol intake in SUS rats. NP rats spent twice as much time immobile as P rats in the FST. Stress did not alter FST behavior in P or NP rats. Only footshock produced an increase (~29%) in ethanol intake in P rats. CONCLUSIONS Selection for stress-induced depressive-like behavior in SUS rats is associated with enhanced stress-induced ethanol drinking. However, the selection for alcohol preference is not associated with stress-induced depressive-like behavior but is associated with footshock stress-induced ethanol drinking. In these experiments, relationships among stress, depressive-like behavior, and alcohol preference were not symmetrical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan L Bertholomey
- Department of Psychology, Purdue School of Science, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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The rapid hydrolysis of chlordiazepoxide to demoxepam may affect the outcome of chronic osmotic minipump studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2010; 208:555-62. [PMID: 20066402 PMCID: PMC2813522 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1752-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In chronic studies, the classical benzodiazepine chlordiazepoxide (CDP) is often the preferred drug because, unlike other benzodiazepines, it is soluble in water. However, rapid CDP hydrolysis in solution has been described. This would diminish plasma levels in chronic minipump studies and introduce the corelease of active compounds. METHODS Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the putative hydrolysis of CDP in aqueous solution over time and to identify the hydrolysis products. Moreover, we aimed to characterize the hydrolysis products for their in vitro (3H-flunitrazepam binding and oocyte electrophysiology) and in vivo (stress-induced hyperthermia paradigm) GABAA receptor potency. RESULTS CDP in solution hydrolyzed to the ketone structure demoxepam which was confirmed using mass spectrometry. The hydrolysis was concentration dependent (first-order kinetics) and temperature dependent. CDP exerted greater potency compared to demoxepam in vitro (increased activity at GABAA receptors containing α1 subunits) and in vivo (stress-induced hyperthermia), although 3H-flunitrazepam binding was comparable. CONCLUSIONS The classical benzodiazepine CDP is rapidly hydrolyzed in solution to the active compound demoxepam which possesses a reduced activity at the GABAA receptor. Chronic studies that use CDP in aqueous solution should thus be interpreted with caution. It is therefore important to consider drug stability in chronic minipump applications.
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Greene J, Banasr M, Lee B, Warner-Schmidt J, Duman RS. Vascular endothelial growth factor signaling is required for the behavioral actions of antidepressant treatment: pharmacological and cellular characterization. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009; 34:2459-68. [PMID: 19553916 PMCID: PMC3694572 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2009.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This study extends earlier work on the role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the actions of antidepressant treatment in two key areas. First, by determining the requirement for VEGF in the actions of a 5-HT selective reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), fluoxetine in behavioral models of depression/antidepressant response; and second, by examining the role of the 5-HT1A receptor subtype in the regulation of VEGF, and the cellular localization of antidepressant regulation of VEGF expression. The results show that pharmacological inhibition of VEGF receptor signaling blocks the behavioral actions of fluoxetine in rats subjected to chronic unpredictable stress. Infusions of SU5416 or SU1498, two structurally dissimilar inhibitors of VEGF-Flk-1 receptor signaling, block the antidepressant effects of fluoxetine on sucrose preference, immobility in the forced swim test, and latency to feed in the novelty suppressed feeding paradigm. We also show that activation of 5-HT1A receptors is sufficient to induce VEGF expression and that a 5-HT1A antagonist blocks both the increase in VEGF and behavioral effects induced by fluoxetine. Finally, double labeling studies show that chronic fluoxetine administration increases VEGF expression in both neurons and endothelial cells in the hippocampus. Taken together these studies show that VEGF is necessary for the behavioral effects of the SSRI fluoxetine, as well as norepinephrine selective reuptake inhibitor, and that these effects may be mediated by 5-HT1A receptors located on neurons and endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Greene
- Department of Psychiatry, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mounira Banasr
- Department of Psychiatry, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Boyoung Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jennifer Warner-Schmidt
- Department of Psychiatry, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ronald S Duman
- Department of Psychiatry, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Center for Genes and Behavior, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Correspondence: Dr RS Duman, Departments of Psychiatry and Pharmacology, Yale University, School of Medicine, Ribicoff Facilities, 34 Park St, New Haven, CT 06508, USA, Tel: +1 203 974 7726, Fax: + 1 203 974 7724,
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Antidepressant drugs with differing pharmacological actions decrease activity of locus coeruleus neurons. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2009; 12:627-41. [PMID: 18950545 PMCID: PMC2700044 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145708009474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that all effective antidepressant (AD) drugs decrease activity of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons. However, little data exist regarding blood levels of drug in these studies, and what data do exist suggest blood levels might have been very high. To assess whether decreased LC activity is produced by drugs that selectively block reuptake for either norepinephrine or serotonin at therapeutically relevant blood levels, effects of chronic administration of desipramine, paroxetine, and escitalopram on LC activity were measured across a range of doses and blood levels of drug. Further, effects of a range of doses of mirtazapine were examined; in that mirtazapine blocks alpha2 adrenergic receptors, it might be anticipated to increase rather than decrease LC activity. Finally, to begin to assess whether the response of LC to ADs was specific to these drugs, effects of four non-AD drugs (single dose) were measured. Drugs were administered via osmotic minipump for 14 d. Electrophysiological recording of LC activity (assessment of both spontaneous firing rate and sensory-evoked 'burst' firing) then took place under isoflurane anaesthesia on the last day of drug treatment. The blood level of drugs present at the end of the recording session was also measured. All AD drugs tested decreased LC spontaneous and sensory-evoked 'burst' firing, and this was observed across a wide range of blood levels for the drugs. Non-AD drugs did not decrease LC activity. The findings of this investigation continue to support the possibility that all effective AD drugs decrease LC activity.
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Abstract
Psychiatric and neurologic disorders take an enormous toll on society. Alleviating the devastating symptoms and consequences of neuropsychiatric disorders such as addiction, depression, epilepsy, and schizophrenia is a main force driving clinical and basic researchers alike. By elucidating these disease neuromechanisms, researchers hope to better define treatments and preventive therapies. Research suggests that regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis represents a promising approach to treating and perhaps preventing mental illness. Here we appraise the role of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in major psychiatric and neurologic disorders within the essential framework of recent progress made in understanding "normal" adult neurogenesis. Topics addressed include the following: the life cycle of an adult hippocampal stem cell and the implications for aging; links between learning and hippocampal neurogenesis; the reciprocal relationship between cocaine self-administration and adult hippocampal neurogenesis; the role of adult neurogenesis in an animal model of depression and response to antidepressant exposure; the impact of neonatal seizures on dentate gyrus neurogenesis; and the contribution of a schizophrenia-susceptibility gene to adult hippocampal neurogenesis. These topics are discussed in light of the regulation of adult neurogenesis, the relationship to normal neurogenesis in adulthood and aging, and, importantly, the manipulation of neurogenesis to promote mental health and treat mental illness.
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Caldwell HK, Lee HJ, Macbeth AH, Young WS. Vasopressin: behavioral roles of an "original" neuropeptide. Prog Neurobiol 2007; 84:1-24. [PMID: 18053631 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2007.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2007] [Revised: 10/24/2007] [Accepted: 10/24/2007] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Vasopressin (Avp) is mainly synthesized in the magnocellular cells of the hypothalamic supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular nuclei (PVN) whose axons project to the posterior pituitary. Avp is then released into the blood stream upon appropriate stimulation (e.g., hemorrhage or dehydration) to act at the kidneys and blood vessels. The brain also contains several populations of smaller, parvocellular neurons whose projections remain within the brain. These populations are located within the PVN, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), medial amygdala (MeA) and suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Since the 1950s, research examining the roles of Avp in the brain and periphery has intensified. The development of specific agonists and antagonists for Avp receptors has allowed for a better elucidation of its contributions to physiology and behavior. Anatomical, pharmacological and transgenic, including "knockout," animal studies have implicated Avp in the regulation of various social behaviors across species. Avp plays a prominent role in the regulation of aggression, generally of facilitating or promoting it. Affiliation and certain aspects of pair-bonding are also influenced by Avp. Memory, one of the first brain functions of Avp that was investigated, has been implicated especially strongly in social recognition. The roles of Avp in stress, anxiety, and depressive states are areas of active exploration. In this review, we concentrate on the scientific progress that has been made in understanding the role of Avp in regulating these and other behaviors across species. We also discuss the implications for human behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather K Caldwell
- Section on Neural Gene Expression, NIMH, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
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23
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Weiss JM, West CHK, Emery MS, Bonsall RW, Moore JP, Boss-Williams KA. Rats selectively-bred for behavior related to affective disorders: proclivity for intake of alcohol and drugs of abuse, and measures of brain monoamines. Biochem Pharmacol 2007; 75:134-59. [PMID: 18053966 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2007.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2007] [Revised: 09/27/2007] [Accepted: 09/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of rats potentially useful for studying affective disorders have been developed in our laboratory though selective breeding for behavioral characteristics. The propensity of these lines to consume alcohol and other drugs of abuse (amphetamine and cocaine) was examined. Also, measurement of the concentration of brain monoamines - norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin - as well as estimation of their metabolism by measurement of the major extracellular metabolites of these monoamines was carried out to examine possible relationships of brain chemistry to the behavioral characteristics shown by these lines, as well as to their propensity for drug usage. The lines of rats are: Swim Low-active (SwLo) and Swim High-active (SwHi), which show either very low (SwLo) or very high (SwHi) amounts of motor activity in a swim test; Swim-test Susceptible (Susceptible or SUS) and Swim-test Resistant (Resistant or RES), which are highly susceptible (SUS) or highly resistant (RES) to having their swim-test activity depressed by being exposed to a stressful condition prior to the swim test; and Hyperactive (HYPER), which show spontaneous nocturnal hyperactivity compared to non-selectively bred (i.e., normal) rats as well as both extreme hyperactivity and behavioral depression after being exposed to a stressful condition. Regarding alcohol and drug usage, SUS rats readily consume alcohol while all other lines including non-selected, normal rats do not, and SwLo rats show a strong tendency to consume amphetamine and cocaine. Marked differences in brain monoamines were found between the various lines and normal rats, with salient differences seen in norepinephrine, particularly in the hippocampus, and in dopamine in forebrain regions (striatum and nucleus accumbens).
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Weiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Malatynska E, Pinhasov A, Creighton CJ, Crooke JJ, Reitz AB, Brenneman DE, Lubomirski MS. Assessing activity onset time and efficacy for clinically effective antidepressant and antimanic drugs in animal models based on dominant-submissive relationships. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2007; 31:904-19. [PMID: 17597209 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Revised: 05/14/2007] [Accepted: 05/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is confusion in the literature on the measurement of the drug activity onset time (AOT) for both clinical and non-clinical studies of antidepressant and antimanic drugs. The questions asked are: How often and at which time points should drug effects be measured? At what level of a drug effect should AOT be determined? Is the placebo (control) effect important for consideration of drug AOT? This paper reviews approaches taken to answer these questions and to assess drug therapeutic AOT. The first part of the paper is devoted to a review of methods used in clinical trials with depression as an indication. The second part is focused on approaches taken in animal models of depression and how they could help in assessing drug AOT. Finally, a summary of pharmacological values on which the AOT depends is presented and a new statistical approach to data analysis method proposed. The allied experimental design for pre-clinical and clinical studies may help to characterize and differentiate AOT for available and new generation of antidepressants and antimanic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Malatynska
- Drug Discovery, CNS Research Team, East Coast Research and Early Development, Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research & Development, P.O. Box 776, Welsh and McKean Rds., L.L.C., Spring House, PA 19477, USA.
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Tabb K, Boss-Williams KA, Weiss JM, Weinshenker D. Rats bred for susceptibility to depression-like phenotypes have higher kainic acid-induced seizure mortality than their depression-resistant counterparts. Epilepsy Res 2007; 74:140-6. [PMID: 17400428 PMCID: PMC1940038 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2007.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2006] [Revised: 01/30/2007] [Accepted: 02/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological evidence suggests that epilepsy and depression are comorbid diseases. In fact, depression is the most common neuropsychiatric disorder associated with epilepsy, particularly temporal lobe epilepsy, and individuals with a history of depression are at a higher risk for developing epilepsy than the general population. Despite the epidemiological evidence for this link, there has been little experimental evidence to support the connection or elucidate possible underlying mechanisms. In an effort to address this problem and develop an animal model of epilepsy and depression comorbidity, we assessed seizure susceptibility and severity parameters in rats selectively bred for either susceptibility (the SwLo, SUS, and HYPER lines) or resistance (the SwHi, RES, and MON RES lines) to depression-like phenotypes. We found that rats bred for susceptibility to depression-like phenotypes experienced higher mortality following kainic acid-induced seizures than their resistant counterparts. In contrast, most line differences were not recapitulated when flurothyl was used to elicit seizures. Stress reduced kainic acid-induced mortality rates in all lines except the HYPER rats, supporting previously established indications that the stress response of HYPER rats is abnormal. These combined results support a neurobiological link between epilepsy and depression, advancing us towards an animal model of their comorbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kroshona Tabb
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead 301, 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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West CHK, Weiss JM. Intake of ethanol and reinforcing fluids in rats bred for susceptibility to stress. Alcohol 2006; 38:13-27. [PMID: 16762688 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2006.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2005] [Revised: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/28/2006] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Rats have been selectively bred in our laboratory based on how swim-test behavior is affected by stress. Following exposure to an acute stressor, active swim-test behavior is reduced in the swim-test susceptible (SUS) line but is not reduced in the swim-test resistant (RES) line. Earlier findings indicate that SUS rats have reduced central serotonin and dopamine levels relative to normal, random-bred (i.e., nonselected [NS]) rats and RES rats, suggesting that SUS rats might respond differently to reinforcing substances, particularly ethanol. We report here comparison of SUS, NS, and RES rats regarding consumption of ethanol. Also examined was consumption of saccharin, sucrose, and quinine. Testing involved a two-bottle, free-choice method of measuring intake of substances in a home cage. Intake of each substance was tested across a range of concentrations. The results indicate that the SUS rats, tested across 14 generations, consume markedly more ethanol than the other two lines; in fact, SUS rats consume amounts similar to that ingested by lines/strains of rats bred specifically for ethanol intake. Similar to other alcohol-preferring rats, SUS rats show an increased affinity for saccharin solutions and a marked increase in their total daily fluid intake when a sweet-tasting saccharin or sucrose solution is available. These results indicate that a propensity to drink alcohol occurs in a line of rats that were selectively bred, not for alcohol intake, but for vulnerability to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles H K West
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Beaugé LA, DiPolo R. Sidedness of the ATP-Na+-K+ interactions with the Na+ pump in squid axons. Methods Mol Biol 1979; 829:125-44. [PMID: 222318 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-458-2_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Using dialysed squid axons we have been able to control internal and external ionic compositions under conditions in which most of the Na+ efflux goes through the Na+ pump. We found that (i) internal K+ had a strong inhibitory effect on Na+ efflux; this effect was antagonized by ATP, with low affinity, and by internal Na+, (ii) a reduction in ATP levels from 3 mM to 50 microM greatly increased the apparent affinity for external K+, but reduced its effectiveness compared with other monovalent cations, as an activator of Na+ efflux, and (iii) the relative effectiveness of different K+ congeners as external activator of the Na+ efflux, though affected by the ATP concentration, was not affected by the Na+/K+ ratio inside the cells. These results are consistent with the idea that the same conformation of the (Na+ + K+)-ATPase can be reached by interaction with external K+ after phosphorylation and with internal K+ before rephosphorylation. They also stress a nonphosphorylating regulatory role of ATP.
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