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Quintas PY, Oliva AL, Alvarez MB, Arias AH, Domini CE, Garrido M, Marcovecchio JE. Fast and Feasible Ultrasound-Assisted Pretreatment for the Determination of Organotin Compounds in Environmental Samples. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2018; 74:645-655. [PMID: 29299658 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-017-0494-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to improve an already established reference method, such as the one devoted to organotin compounds determination (Reference Method for Marine Pollution Studies, No. 59, UNEP). The proposed upgrade consists of replacing the mechanical shaking by ultrasound energy and applying low temperature throughout the whole procedure. The optimization of the new operational conditions was performed by using a factorial design. Quality control was performed using a certified sediment reference material (PACS-2) for sediments (82.5-97% of recovery) and recoveries on spiked samples for suspended particulate matter (SPM) and mussels (94-100%). The proposed procedure was applied to surface sediment samples, SPM, and native bivalve mollusks (Brachidontes rodriguezii) collected in Bahia Blanca estuary, a very industrialized zone. The relative standard deviation (RSD %) of the environmental samples were less than 7.9%. It is important to note that the proposed procedure reduced the sample pretreatment time about seven times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Y Quintas
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS-CONICET), Bahía Blanca, Argentina.
| | - Ana L Oliva
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS-CONICET), Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Mónica B Alvarez
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Química del Sur, INQUISUR (UNS-CONICET), Sección Química Analítica, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Av. Alem 1253, B8000CPB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Andres H Arias
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS-CONICET), Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Claudia E Domini
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Química del Sur, INQUISUR (UNS-CONICET), Sección Química Analítica, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Av. Alem 1253, B8000CPB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Mariano Garrido
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Química del Sur, INQUISUR (UNS-CONICET), Sección Química Analítica, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Av. Alem 1253, B8000CPB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina.
| | - Jorge E Marcovecchio
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS-CONICET), Bahía Blanca, Argentina
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Giri A, Zelinkova Z, Wenzl T. Experimental design-based isotope-dilution SPME-GC/MS method development for the analysis of smoke flavouring products. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2017; 34:2069-2084. [PMID: 28885099 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2017.1374564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
For the implementation of Regulation (EC) No 2065/2003 related to smoke flavourings used or intended for use in or on foods a method based on solid-phase micro extraction (SPME) GC/MS was developed for the characterisation of liquid smoke products. A statistically based experimental design (DoE) was used for method optimisation. The best general conditions to quantitatively analyse the liquid smoke compounds were obtained with a polydimethylsiloxane/divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) fibre, 60°C extraction temperature, 30 min extraction time, 250°C desorption temperature, 180 s desorption time, 15 s agitation time, and 250 rpm agitation speed. Under the optimised conditions, 119 wood pyrolysis products including furan/pyran derivatives, phenols, guaiacol, syringol, benzenediol, and their derivatives, cyclic ketones, and several other heterocyclic compounds were identified. The proposed method was repeatable (RSD% <5) and the calibration functions were linear for all compounds under study. Nine isotopically labelled internal standards were used for improving quantification of analytes by compensating matrix effects that might affect headspace equilibrium and extractability of compounds. The optimised isotope dilution SPME-GC/MS based analytical method proved to be fit for purpose, allowing the rapid identification and quantification of volatile compounds in liquid smoke flavourings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupam Giri
- a European Commission , Joint Research Centre-Geel , Geel , Belgium
| | - Zuzana Zelinkova
- a European Commission , Joint Research Centre-Geel , Geel , Belgium
| | - Thomas Wenzl
- a European Commission , Joint Research Centre-Geel , Geel , Belgium
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3
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Bravo MA, Parra S, Vargas C, Quiroz W. Determination of organotin compounds in sediment samples by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction followed by gas chromatography – Pulsed flame photometric detection (DLLME-GC-PFPD). Microchem J 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2017.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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4
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Determination of butyltins, phenyltins and octyltins in foods with preservation of their moieties: A critical review on analytical methods. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1505:18-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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5
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Ochsenkühn-Petropoulou M, Tsopelas F, Ruzik L, Bierła K, Szpunar J. Selenium and Selenium Species. Metallomics 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527694907.ch6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ochsenkühn-Petropoulou
- National Technical University of Athens, School of Chemical Engineering; Laboratory of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry; Iroon Polytechneiou 9, Zografou Campus 157 80 Athens Greece
| | - Fotios Tsopelas
- Warsaw University of Technology; Noakowskiego 3 00-664 Warsaw Poland
| | - Lena Ruzik
- National Technical University of Athens, School of Chemical Engineering; Laboratory of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry; Iroon Polytechneiou 9, Zografou Campus 157 80 Athens Greece
| | - Katarzyna Bierła
- Warsaw University of Technology; Noakowskiego 3 00-664 Warsaw Poland
| | - Joanna Szpunar
- CNRS-UPPA IPREM; , Laboratory of Bioinorganic Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, UMR 5254; 2, Avenue Président Angot 64053 Pau France
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6
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Speciation analysis of organotin compounds (OTCs) by a simultaneous hydride generation–liquid/liquid extraction and GC–MS determination. Microchem J 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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7
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Al-shatri MA, Nuhu AA, Basheer C, Al-Arfaj A, Al-Tawabini B. Assessment of Tributyltin and Triphenyltin Compounds and Their Main Degradation Products in Saudi Coastal waters. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-015-1673-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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8
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Experimental design for TBT quantification by isotope dilution SPE–GC–ICP–MS under the European water framework directive. Talanta 2015; 134:576-586. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.11.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 11/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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9
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Noventa S, Barbaro J, Formalewicz M, Gion C, Rampazzo F, Brusà RB, Gabellini M, Berto D. A fast and effective routine method based on HS-SPME–GC–MS/MS for the analysis of organotin compounds in biota samples. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 858:66-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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10
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Valenzuela A, Lespes G, Quiroz W, Aguilar LF, Bravo MA. Speciation analysis of organotin compounds in human urine by headspace solid-phase micro-extraction and gas chromatography with pulsed flame photometric detection. Talanta 2014; 125:196-203. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.02.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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11
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Application of the experimental design of experiments (DoE) for the determination of organotin compounds in water samples using HS-SPME and GC–MS/MS. Talanta 2014; 119:544-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.11.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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12
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Cacho J, Campillo N, Viñas P, Hernández-Córdoba M. Headspace sorptive extraction for the analysis of organotin compounds using thermal desorption and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1279:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/22/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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13
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Determination of tributyltin at parts-per-trillion levels in natural waters by second-order multivariate calibration and fluorescence spectroscopy. Microchem J 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2012.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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14
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Devos C, David F, Sandra P. A new validated analytical method for the determination of tributyltin in water samples at the quantification level set by the European Union. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1261:151-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.07.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2012] [Revised: 07/10/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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15
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Campillo N, Viñas P, Peñalver R, Cacho JI, Hernández-Córdoba M. Solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography for the speciation of organotin compounds in honey and wine samples: A comparison of atomic emission and mass spectrometry detectors. J Food Compost Anal 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2011.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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16
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Bravo M. M, Valenzuela S. A, Fuentes P. E, Quiroz V. W. Critical evaluation of fiber coatings for organotin determination by using solid phase microextraction in headspace mode. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1223:9-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Revised: 12/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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17
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Cui Z, Zhang K, Zhou Q, Liu J, Jiang G. Determination of methyltin compounds in urine of occupationally exposed and general population by in situ ethylation and headspace SPME coupled with GC-FPD. Talanta 2011; 85:1028-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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18
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Pinochet H, Tessini C, Bravo M, Quiroz W, De Gregori I. Butyltin compounds and their relation with organic matter in marine sediments from San Vicente Bay-Chile. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2009; 155:341-353. [PMID: 18651232 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-008-0439-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2007] [Accepted: 06/11/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Tributyltin and its degradation products, mono-and dibutyltin have been determined in sediments collected in some representative sites in San Vicente Bay, Chile. The organic matter contents of sediments and water collected simultaneously from the same sampling sites were also determined. High levels of total organic carbon were found in sediments, especially in those from the northern part of the bay (1.80-8.87%). Good correlations were found between total organic carbon and the oxidizable and refractory carbon fractions. Among the butyltin species determined, TBT presented the highest levels, ranging from 14 to 1,560 ng Sn g(-1) dry weight. Concentration ratios of TBT to DBT ranged between 1.33 and 3.10, showing a high degree of contamination in sediments of this Chilean bay. All data obtained were analysed by the chemometric method of principal components analysis. A strong correlation was found between TBT and DBT concentrations in sediments, the different organic matter contents in sediments and water. In marine organisms only TBT was detected, containing the filterer organism Semele solida higher level than Perumytilus purpuratus and Pyura chilensis (220, 150 and 120 ng Sn g(-1) dry weight, respectively). For the alga Rodoficea iridae the TBT concentration was 60 ng Sn g(-1) dw. Comparatively, these values are higher than those reported for the same kind of marine organisms worldwide. The different samples from San Vicente Bay were found to be contaminated by TBT. This contamination can be attributed to the different anthropogenic activities taking place in the bay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Pinochet
- Laboratorio de Química Analítica y Ambiental, Instituto de Química, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Avenida Brasil 2950, P.O. Box 4059, Valparaíso, Chile
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19
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Evans O, Kauffman P, Vonderheide AP, Wymer LJ, Morgan JN. The determination of pesticidal and non-pesticidal organotin compounds in water matrices by in situ ethylation and gas chromatography with pulsed flame photometric detection. Microchem J 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2009.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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20
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Xiao Q, Hu B, He M. Speciation of butyltin compounds in environmental and biological samples using headspace single drop microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1211:135-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.09.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2008] [Revised: 09/23/2008] [Accepted: 09/26/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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21
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Dubascoux S, Heroult J, Le Hécho I, Potin-Gautier M, Lespes G. Evaluation of a combined fractionation and speciation approach for study of size-based distribution of organotin species on environmental colloids. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 390:1805-13. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-1913-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2007] [Revised: 01/21/2008] [Accepted: 01/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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22
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Antizar-Ladislao B. Environmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environment. a review. b_antizar@hotmail.com. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2008; 34:292-308. [PMID: 17959247 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 474] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2007] [Revised: 09/05/2007] [Accepted: 09/14/2007] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chemical used for various industrial purposes such as slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, antifouling agents, and the preservation of wood. Due to its widespread use as an antifouling agent in boat paints, TBT is a common contaminant of marine and freshwater ecosystems exceeding acute and chronic toxicity levels. TBT is the most significant pesticide in marine and freshwaters in Europe and consequently its environmental level, fate, toxicity and human exposure are of current concern. Thus, the European Union has decided to specifically include TBT compounds in its list of priority compounds in water in order to control its fate in natural systems, due to their toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and endocrine disruptive characteristics. Additionally, the International Maritime Organization has called for a global treaty that bans the application of TBT-based paints starting 1 of January 2003, and total prohibition by 1 of January 2008. This paper reviews the state of the science regarding TBT, with special attention paid to the environmental levels, toxicity, and human exposure. TBT compounds have been detected in a number of environmental samples. In humans, organotin compounds have been detected in blood and in the liver. As for other persistent organic pollutants, dietary intake is most probably the main route of exposure to TBT compounds for the general population. However, data concerning TBT levels in foodstuffs are scarce. It is concluded that investigations on experimental toxicity, dietary intake, potential human health effects and development of new sustainable technologies to remove TBT compounds are clearly necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca Antizar-Ladislao
- Department of Water and Environment Science and Technology, University of Cantabria, Bulevar Ronda Rufino Peón 254, 39316 Torrelavega, Cantabria, Spain
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Lambropoulou DA, Konstantinou IK, Albanis TA. Recent developments in headspace microextraction techniques for the analysis of environmental contaminants in different matrices. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1152:70-96. [PMID: 17379234 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.02.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2006] [Revised: 02/23/2007] [Accepted: 02/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Headspace microextraction procedures such as solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and single drop microextraction (SDME) or liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) are increasingly used for the extraction of environmental organic pollutants from a variety of aqueous, viscous, semisolid and solid environmental and biological matrices. In this article, recent analytical applications of these methodologies when used as an isolation and trace enrichment step prior to the analysis of organic pollutants (pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated compounds, organotin compounds, phenolic derivatives, aromatic amines, phthalates, etc.) by gas and liquid chromatography are reviewed. The applicability and inherent limitations of headspace microextraction are also discussed. The future direction of research in this field and general trends toward commercial applications are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitra A Lambropoulou
- Laboratory of Environmental Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Ioannina 45110, Greece.
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Martínez Salvador I, Garrido Frenich A, Egea González FJ, Martínez Vidal JL. Determination of Organophosphorus Pesticides in Vegetables by GC with Pulsed Flame-Photometric Detection, and Confirmation by MS. Chromatographia 2006. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-006-0104-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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25
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Zuliani T, Lespes G, Milačič R, Ščančar J, Potin-Gautier M. Influence of the soil matrices on the analytical performance of headspace solid-phase microextraction for organotin analysis by gas chromatography-pulsed flame photometric detection. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1132:234-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.07.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2006] [Revised: 07/18/2006] [Accepted: 07/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Ou QR, Whang CW. Determination of butyltin and octyltin stabilizers in poly(vinyl chloride) products by headspace solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography with flame-photometric detection. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 386:376-81. [PMID: 16896617 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0657-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2006] [Revised: 06/22/2006] [Accepted: 06/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography with flame photometric detection (GC-FPD) have been investigated for determination of butyltin and octyltin stabilizers in poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) products. The organotin stabilizers were first released from the plastic matrix by dissolving the PVC sample in tetrahydrofuran (THF). The stabilizers were then hydrolyzed to the chloride forms, by treatment with 6 mol L(-1) HCl, then derivatized with sodium tetraethylborate (NaBEt4) in 0.2 mol L(-1) sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.5) at 50 degrees C. HS-SPME was performed with a fused-silica fiber coated with a 100-microm film of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The collected organotin compounds were then desorbed in the GC injector at 280 degrees C and analyzed by GC-FPD. Linearity (r > or =0.994) over a concentration of approximately two orders of magnitude was usually obtained. Limits of quantitation (LOQ) of the four organotin compounds studied, viz., monobutyltin (MBT), dibutyltin (DBT), monooctyltin (MOT), and dioctyltin (DOT), were in the range 0.3-1.0 ng Sn mL(-1). Recovery was >90% for butyltins and >80% for octyltins. The method was validated by analyzing two reference standard PVC sheets with known organotin content. The applicability of the method to analysis of organotin stabilizers in commercial PVC products was also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin-Ren Ou
- Department of Chemistry, Tunghai University, Taichung, 407, Taiwan
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