1
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Sleumer B, van Faassen M, Vos MJ, den Besten G, Kema IP, van de Merbel NC. Simultaneous quantification of the 22-kDa isoforms of human growth hormone 1 and 2 in human plasma by multiplexed immunocapture and LC-MS/MS. Clin Chim Acta 2024; 554:117736. [PMID: 38142804 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2023.117736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
An LC-MS/MS method is presented for the simultaneous quantification of two structurally closely related protein biomarker isoforms, the 22-kDa isoforms of human growth hormone 1 and human growth hormone 2, in human plasma. It is based on multiplexed immunocapture using two monoclonal antibodies immobilized on magnetic beads, tryptic digestion and quantification of two specific signature peptides plus an additional peptide for estimation of total growth hormone related concentrations. A full validation according to international guidelines was performed across the clinically relevant concentration ranges of 0.5 to 50 ng/mL for growth hormone 1, and 2 to 50 ng/mL for growth hormone 2 and demonstrated satisfactory method performance in terms of accuracy, precision, stability and absence of interference. The method's applicability for routine analysis and its ability to effectively distinguish between GH1 and GH2 was demonstrated by the analysis of plasma samples from pregnant individuals to study the changes in growth hormone levels during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas Sleumer
- ICON Bioanalytical Laboratories, Amerikaweg 18, 9407 TK Assen, the Netherlands; Department of Analytical Biochemistry University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV Groningen, the Netherlands; Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, EA61, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Martijn van Faassen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, EA61, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Michel J Vos
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, EA61, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Gijs den Besten
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Isala, Dr. Van Heesweg 2, 8025 AB Zwolle, the Netherlands
| | - Ido P Kema
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, EA61, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Nico C van de Merbel
- ICON Bioanalytical Laboratories, Amerikaweg 18, 9407 TK Assen, the Netherlands; Department of Analytical Biochemistry University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV Groningen, the Netherlands.
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2
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Amash A, Volkers G, Farber P, Griffin D, Davison KS, Goodman A, Tonikian R, Yamniuk A, Barnhart B, Jacobs T. Developability considerations for bispecific and multispecific antibodies. MAbs 2024; 16:2394229. [PMID: 39189686 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2024.2394229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2024] [Revised: 08/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Bispecific antibodies (bsAb) and multispecific antibodies (msAb) encompass a diverse variety of formats that can concurrently bind multiple epitopes, unlocking mechanisms to address previously difficult-to-treat or incurable diseases. Early assessment of candidate developability enables demotion of antibodies with low potential and promotion of the most promising candidates for further development. Protein-based therapies have a stringent set of developability requirements in order to be competitive (e.g. high-concentration formulation, and long half-life) and their assessment requires a robust toolkit of methods, few of which are validated for interrogating bsAbs/msAbs. Important considerations when assessing the developability of bsAbs/msAbs include their molecular format, likelihood for immunogenicity, specificity, stability, and potential for high-volume production. Here, we summarize the critical aspects of developability assessment, and provide guidance on how to develop a comprehensive plan tailored to a given bsAb/msAb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaa Amash
- AbCellera Biologics Inc, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Tim Jacobs
- AbCellera Biologics Inc, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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3
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Huang Y, Yuan J, Mu R, Kubiak RJ, Ball K, Cao M, Hussmann GP, de Mel N, Liu D, Roskos LK, Liang M, Rosenbaum AI. Multiplex Bioanalytical Methods for Comprehensive Characterization and Quantification of the Unique Complementarity-Determining-Region Deamidation of MEDI7247, an Anti-ASCT2 Pyrrolobenzodiazepine Antibody-Drug Conjugate. Antibodies (Basel) 2023; 12:66. [PMID: 37873863 PMCID: PMC10594446 DOI: 10.3390/antib12040066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Deamidation, a common post-translational modification, may impact multiple physiochemical properties of a therapeutic protein. MEDI7247, a pyrrolobenzodiazepine (PBD) antibody-drug conjugate (ADC), contains a unique deamidation site, N102, located within the complementarity-determining region (CDR), impacting the affinity of MEDI7247 to its target. Therefore, it was necessary to monitor MEDI7247 deamidation status in vivo. Due to the low dose, a sensitive absolute quantification method using immunocapture coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LBA-LC-MS/MS) was developed and qualified. We characterized the isomerization via Electron-Activated Dissociation (EAD), revealing that deamidation resulted in iso-aspartic acid. The absolute quantification of deamidation requires careful assay optimization in order not to perturb the balance of the deamidated and nondeamidated forms. Moreover, the selection of capture reagents essential for the correct quantitative assessment of deamidation was evaluated. The final assay was qualified with 50 ng/mL LLOQ for ADC for total and nondeamidated antibody quantification, with qualitative monitoring of the deamidated antibody. The impact of deamidation on the pharmacokinetic characteristics of MEDI7247 from clinical trial NCT03106428 was analyzed, revealing a gradual reduction in the nondeamidated form of MEDI7247 in vivo. Careful quantitative biotransformation analyses of complex biotherapeutic conjugates help us understand changes in product PTMs after administration, thus providing a more complete view of in vivo pharmacology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Huang
- Integrated Bioanalysis, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, 121 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA; (Y.H.); (J.Y.); (R.M.); (M.L.)
| | - Jiaqi Yuan
- Integrated Bioanalysis, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, 121 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA; (Y.H.); (J.Y.); (R.M.); (M.L.)
| | - Ruipeng Mu
- Integrated Bioanalysis, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, 121 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA; (Y.H.); (J.Y.); (R.M.); (M.L.)
| | - Robert J. Kubiak
- Clinical Pharmacology and Quantitative Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA; (R.J.K.); (L.K.R.)
| | - Kathryn Ball
- Clinical Pharmacology and Quantitative Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, UK;
| | - Mingyan Cao
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA; (M.C.); (G.P.H.); (N.d.M.); (D.L.)
| | - G. Patrick Hussmann
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA; (M.C.); (G.P.H.); (N.d.M.); (D.L.)
| | - Niluka de Mel
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA; (M.C.); (G.P.H.); (N.d.M.); (D.L.)
| | - Dengfeng Liu
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA; (M.C.); (G.P.H.); (N.d.M.); (D.L.)
| | - Lorin K. Roskos
- Clinical Pharmacology and Quantitative Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA; (R.J.K.); (L.K.R.)
| | - Meina Liang
- Integrated Bioanalysis, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, 121 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA; (Y.H.); (J.Y.); (R.M.); (M.L.)
| | - Anton I. Rosenbaum
- Integrated Bioanalysis, Clinical Pharmacology & Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, 121 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA; (Y.H.); (J.Y.); (R.M.); (M.L.)
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4
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Sleumer B, Kema IP, van de Merbel NC. Quantitative bioanalysis of proteins by digestion and LC-MS/MS: the use of multiple signature peptides. Bioanalysis 2023; 15:1203-1216. [PMID: 37724471 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2023-0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of multiple signature peptides for the quantification of proteins by digestion and LC-MS/MS is reviewed and evaluated here. A distinction is made based on the purpose of the use of multiple peptides: confirmation of the protein concentration, discrimination between different protein forms or species and in vivo biotransformation. Most reports that describe methods with at least two peptides use these for confirmation, but it is not always mentioned how the peptides are used and how possible differences in concentration between the peptides are handled. Differences in concentration are often reported in the case of monitoring different protein forms or in vivo biotransformation, and this offers insight into the biological fate of the protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas Sleumer
- ICON Bioanalytical Laboratories, Amerikaweg 18, 9407 TK, Assen, The Netherlands
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, EA61, PO Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ido P Kema
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, EA61, PO Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nico C van de Merbel
- ICON Bioanalytical Laboratories, Amerikaweg 18, 9407 TK, Assen, The Netherlands
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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5
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Torkashvand F, Mehranfar M, Rashidi Gero M, Jafarian P, Mirabzadeh E, Azarian B, Sardari S, Vaziri B. Trastuzumab Charge Variants: a Study on Physicochemical and Pharmacokinetic Properties. IRANIAN BIOMEDICAL JOURNAL 2023; 27:108-16. [PMID: 37070702 PMCID: PMC10314757 DOI: 10.61186/ibj.3837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Background Post-translational modifications in bioprocessing and storage of recombinant mAbs are the main sources of charge variants. While the profile of these kinds of variants is considered an important attribute for the therapeutic mAbs, there is controversy about their direct role in safety and efficacy. In this study, the physicochemical and pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of the separated charge variants belonging to a trastuzumab potential biosimilar, were examined. Methods The acidic peaks, basic peaks, and main variants of trastuzumab were separated and enriched by semi-preparative weak cation exchange. A panel of analytical techniques was utilized to characterize the physicochemical properties of these variants. The binding affinity to HER2 and FcγRs and the PK parameters were evaluated for each variant. Results Based on the results, the charge variants of the proposed biosimilar had no significant influence on the examined efficacy and PK parameters. Conclusion During the development and production of biosimilar monoclonal antibodies, evaluating the effect of their charge variants on efficacy and PK parameters is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Torkashvand
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Mahsa Mehranfar
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Mahsa Rashidi Gero
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parisa Jafarian
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, North Tehran branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Esmat Mirabzadeh
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahareh Azarian
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Soroush Sardari
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behrouz Vaziri
- Biotechnology Research Centre, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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6
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Spanov B, Olaleye O, Mesurado T, Govorukhina N, Jungbauer A, van de Merbel NC, Lingg N, Bischoff R. Pertuzumab Charge Variant Analysis and Complementarity-Determining Region Stability Assessment to Deamidation. Anal Chem 2023; 95:3951-3958. [PMID: 36795375 PMCID: PMC9979147 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Pertuzumab is a monoclonal antibody used for the treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer in combination with trastuzumab. Charge variants of trastuzumab have been extensively described in the literature; however, little is known about the charge heterogeneity of pertuzumab. Here, changes in the ion-exchange profile of pertuzumab were evaluated by pH gradient cation-exchange chromatography after stressing it for up to 3 weeks at physiological and elevated pH and 37 °C. Isolated charge variants arising under stress conditions were characterized by peptide mapping. The results of peptide mapping showed that deamidation in the Fc domain and N-terminal pyroglutamate formation in the heavy chain are the main contributors to charge heterogeneity. The heavy chain CDR2, which is the only CDR containing asparagine residues, was quite resistant to deamidation under stress conditions according to peptide mapping results. Using surface plasmon resonance, it was shown that the affinity of pertuzumab for the HER2 target receptor does not change under stress conditions. Peptide mapping analysis of clinical samples showed an average of 2-3% deamidation in the heavy chain CDR2, 20-25% deamidation in the Fc domain, and 10-15% N-terminal pyroglutamate formation in the heavy chain. These findings suggest that in vitro stress studies are able to predict in vivo modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baubek Spanov
- Department
of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Oladapo Olaleye
- Department
of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tomés Mesurado
- Department
of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna, Muthgasse 18, Vienna 1190, Austria
| | - Natalia Govorukhina
- Department
of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- Department
of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna, Muthgasse 18, Vienna 1190, Austria
| | - Nico C. van de Merbel
- Department
of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands,Bioanalytical
Laboratory, ICON, Amerikaweg 18, 9407 TK Assen, The Netherlands
| | - Nico Lingg
- Department
of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna, Muthgasse 18, Vienna 1190, Austria
| | - Rainer Bischoff
- Department
of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands,
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7
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Direct bioanalysis or indirect calculation of target engagement and free drug exposure: do we apply double standards? Bioanalysis 2023; 15:5-16. [PMID: 36762451 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2022-0246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Analysis of "free" drug/target concentrations is important to set up appropriate pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic models, to evaluate active-drug exposure and target engagement. Such "free-analyte" determination could be done by direct bioanalysis using an appropriate "free-analyte" assay. Development of "free" assays is often considered challenging from a technological and regulatory perspective. The application of a "total-total" approach, where the "free-analyte" concentration is determined mathematically, is considered a more convenient option. In this perspective, we examine and discuss the challenges of this "total-total" approach, from the affinity data, the importance of applying an appropriate "total" assay, the impact of additional binding partners and the variability of the total drug/target assays and their impact on the quality and variability of the final "free-analyte" dataset.
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8
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Schuster J, Kamuju V, Mathaes R. Protein Stability After Administration: A Physiologic Consideration. J Pharm Sci 2023; 112:370-376. [PMID: 36202247 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2022.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory authorities and the scientific community have identified the need to monitor the in vivo stability of therapeutic proteins (TPs). Due to the unique physiologic conditions in patients, the stability of TPs after administration can deviate largely from their stability under drug product (DP) conditions. TPs can degrade at substantial rates once immersed in the in vivo milieu. Changes in protein stability upon administration to patients are critical as they can have implications on patient safety and clinical effectiveness of DPs. Physiologic conditions are challenging to simulate and require dedicated in vitro models for specific routes of administration. Advancements of in vitro models enable to simulate the exposure to physiologic conditions prior to resource demanding pre-clinical and clinical studies. This enables to evaluate the in vivo stability and thus may allow to improve the safety/efficacy profile of DPs. While in vitro-in vivo correlations are challenging, benchmarking DP candidates enables to identify liabilities and optimize molecules. The in vivo stability should be an integral part of holistic stability assessments during early development. Such assessments can accelerate development timelines and lead to more stable DPs for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Schuster
- Lonza Pharma and Biotech, Drug Product Services, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Vinay Kamuju
- Lonza Pharma and Biotech, Drug Product Services, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Roman Mathaes
- Lonza Pharma and Biotech, Drug Product Services, Basel, Switzerland
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9
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Olaleye O, Spanov B, Bults P, van der Voort A, Govorukhina N, Sonke GS, Horvatovich P, van de Merbel NC, Bischoff R. Biotransformation of Trastuzumab and Pertuzumab in Breast Cancer Patients Assessed by Affinity Enrichment and Ion-Exchange Chromatography. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:249-256. [PMID: 36379709 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.001094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic proteins (TPs) are known to be heterogeneous due to modifications that occur during the production process and storage. Modifications may also occur in TPs after their administration to patients due to in vivo biotransformation. Ligand binding assays, which are widely used in the bioanalysis of TPs in body fluids, are typically unable to distinguish such modifications. Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry is being increasingly used to study modifications in TPs, but its use to study in vivo biotransformation has been limited until now. We present a novel approach that combines affinity enrichment using Affimer reagents with ion-exchange chromatography (IEX) to analyze charge variants of the TPs trastuzumab and pertuzumab in plasma of patients undergoing therapy for HER2-positive breast cancer. Affimer reagents were immobilized via engineered Cys tags to maleimide beads, and the TPs were eluted under acidic conditions followed by rapid neutralization. The enriched TPs were analyzed by cation-exchange chromatography (IEX) using pH-gradient elution, resulting in the separation of about 20 charge variants for trastuzumab and about five charge variants for pertuzumab. A comparison between in vitro stressed TPs spiked into plasma, and TPs enriched from patient plasma showed that the observed profiles were highly similar. This indicates that in vitro stress testing in plasma can mimic the situation in patient plasma, as far as the generation of charge variants is concerned. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This research attempts to elucidate the modifications that occur in therapeutic proteins (TPs) after they have been administered to patients. This is important because there is little knowledge about the fate of TPs in this regard, and certain modifications could affect their efficiency. Our results show that the modifications discovered are most likely due to a chemical process and are not patient specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oladapo Olaleye
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Baubek Spanov
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Bults
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anna van der Voort
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Natalia Govorukhina
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gabe S Sonke
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Horvatovich
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nico C van de Merbel
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rainer Bischoff
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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10
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Large molecule bioanalysis by LC-MS: beyond simply quantifying. Bioanalysis 2022; 14:397-400. [PMID: 35249374 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2022-0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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