A novel biopesticide production: attagel-mediated precipitation of chitinase from Beauveria bassiana SFB-205 supernatant for thermotolerance

Chitin isolation from crustaceans and mushrooms: The need for quantitative assessment

This review examines key journal articles on the isolation of chitin from mushroom biomass comparing these findings to those related to crustacean chitin. It highlights the need for standardizing chitin characterization, emphasizing that chitin comprises a family of polymers with variations in molecular weight (Mw), degree of acetylation (%DA), and acetylation patterns (PA), leading to diverse physicochemical properties and biological activities. The review positions fungi and mushrooms as emerging sources of 'vegan' chitin, being non-animal and free from allergenic proteins. Their ability to be cultivated year-round, along with rapid growth and low-cost biowaste substrates, makes them attractive alternatives to crustacean chitin. Market adoption of mushroom chitin will depend on its potential applications in high-value products. Traditionally, chitin characterization has been semi-qualitative, but there is now a growing recognition of how sample inconsistencies impact research quality. This review underscores the importance of quantitative analysis for achieving practical, repeatable, and reproducible results while addressing the challenges in characterizing fungal chitin. We argue that accurately determining the properties of fungal chitin is essential and should be a fundamental aspect of every study, as these properties significantly influence the polymer's characteristics and biological activity.

Recent advancements and perspectives on processable natural biopolymers: Cellulose, chitosan, eggshell membrane, and silk fibroin

With the rapid development of the global economy and the continuous consumption of fossil resources, sustainable and biodegradable natural biomass has garnered extensive attention as a promising substitute for synthetic polymers. Due to their hierarchical and nanoscale structures, natural biopolymers exhibit remarkable mechanical properties, along with excellent innate biocompatibility and biodegradability, demonstrating significant potential in various application scenarios. Among these biopolymers, proteins and polysaccharides are the most commonly studied due to their low cost, abundance, and ease of use. However, the direct processing/conversion of proteins and polysaccharides into their final products has been a long-standing challenge due to their natural morphology and compositions. In this review, we emphasize the importance of processing natural biopolymers into high-value-added products through sustainable and cost-effective methods. We begin with the extraction of four types of natural biopolymers: cellulose, chitosan, eggshell membrane, and silk fibroin. The processing and post-functionalization strategies for these natural biopolymers are then highlighted. Alongside their unique structures, the versatile potential applications of these processable natural biopolymers in biomedical engineering, biosensors, environmental engineering, and energy applications are illustrated. Finally, we provide a summary and future outlook on processable natural biopolymers, underscoring the significance of converting natural biopolymers into valuable biomaterial platforms.

Insect-fungal-interactions: A detailed review on entomopathogenic fungi pathogenicity to combat insect pests

Global food security is threatened by insect pests of economically important crops. Chemical pesticides have been used frequently for the last few decades to manage insect pests throughout the world. However, these chemicals are hazardous for human health as well as the ecosystem. In addition, several pests have evolved resistance to many chemicals. Finding environment friendly alternatives lead the researchers to introduce biocontrol agents such as entomopathogenic fungi (EPF). These fungi include various genera that can infect and kill insects efficiently. Moreover, EPFs have considerable host specificity with a mild effect on non-target organisms and can be produced in bulk quantity quickly. However, insights into the biology of EPF and mechanism of action are of prime significance for their efficient utilization as a biocontrol agent. This review focuses on EPF-mediated insect management by explaining particular EPF strains and their general mode of action. We have comprehensively discussed which criteria should be used for the selection of pertinent EPF, and which aspects can impact the EPF efficiency. Finally, we have outlined various advantages of EPF and their limitations. The article summarizes the prospects related to EPF utilization as biocontrol agents. We hope that future strategies for the management of insects will be safer for our planet.

Bioactivity and biochemical efficacy of chitinase and Justicia brandegeana extract against Red Palm Weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus is a large polyphagous insect, and this study was carried out to isolate chitinase from Beauveria bassiana as well as phytochemical screening of Justicia brandegeana to elucidate its effect as biocontrol agents against the red palm weevil and its possible effect on enzymatic bioactivity. It is the first time that the lipoid constituents of J. brandegeana were examined by both gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/Mass). The results showed that the highest rates of mortality in treated prepupae were 35.0% and 30.0% with the higher concentration of chitinase (25 ppm) and petroleum ether extract of J. brandegeana (1,200 ppm), respectively. Moreover, changes in enzyme activity of ALP, PO, GPT, and GOT in the prepupal stage after treatment with LC50 chitinase and J. brandegeana extract were 36.63 & 14.32, -21.99 & 41.20, -11.02 & 47.05, and -36.00 & 21.43% compared with untreated control, respectively. This study demonstrated effectiveness of chitinase, and the petroleum ether extract of J. brandegeana has potent effect against Rh. ferrugineus due to its disturbance effect on the enzymatic system, protein as well as DNA damage.

Lack of involvement of chitinase in direct toxicity of Beauveria bassiana cultures to the aphid Myzus persicae

The fungal insect pathogen Beauveria bassiana produces a range of insecticidal metabolites and enzymes, including chitinases and proteases, which may assist the disease progression. The enzymes often play a predominant role in the pathogenicity pathway and both chitinases and proteases have previously been shown to be important in host infection. Spray application of supernatants of B. bassiana broth cultures of an isolate from New Zealand caused significant mortality in the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, within 24 h, demonstrating an apparent contact toxicity. Three-day-old broth cultures were the most effective, with less insect mortality seen using six-day-old broth. However, aphicidal activity increased again when treating aphids with seven-day-old broth. Cultures grew substantially better and produced more potent aphicidal cultures when cultured in media with an initial pH above 5.5. Chitinase was produced a day earlier than the serine protease Pr1, but the peak production periods of these enzymes did not correlate with the aphicidal activities of three- or six-day-old cultures. Cultures treated with EDTA or heated to inactivate the enzymes still showed strong insecticidal activity. Neither beauvericin nor bassianolide, two known insecticidal metabolites, were detected in the supernatants. Therefore the key aphicidal components of B. bassiana cultures were not associated with chitinase nor Pr1 and are yet to be identified.

Biocontrol potential of Halotolerant bacterial chitinase from high yielding novel Bacillus Pumilus MCB-7 autochthonous to mangrove ecosystem

The multifaceted role of chitinase in medicine, agriculture, environmental remediation and various other industries greatly demands the isolation of high yielding chitinase producing microorganisms with improved properties. The current study aimed to investigate the isolation, characterization and biocontrol prospective of chitinase producing bacterial strains autochthonous to the extreme conditions of mangrove ecosystems. Among the 51 bacterial isolates screened, Bacillus pumilus MCB-7 with highest chitinase production potential was identified and confirmed by 16S rDNA typing. Chitinase enzyme of MCB-7 was purified; the chitin degradation was evaluated by SEM and LC-MS. Unlike previously reported B.pumilus isolates, MCB-7 exhibited highest chitinase activity of 3.36U/mL, active even at high salt concentrations and temperature up to 60°C. The crude as well as purified enzyme showed significant antimycotic activity against agricultural pathogens such as Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Ceratorhiza hydrophila and Fusarium oxysporum. The enzyme also exhibited biopesticidal role against larvae of Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker). [Lep.: Pyralidae], a serious agricultural pest of rice. The high chitinolytic and antimycotic potential of MCB-7 increases the prospects of the isolate as an excellent biocontrol agent. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of high chitinase yielding Bacillus pumilus strain from mangrove ecosystem with a biocontrol role against phytopathogenic fungi and insect larval pests.

The production and uses of Beauveria bassiana as a microbial insecticide

Among invertebrate fungal pathogens, Beauveria bassiana has assumed a key role in management of numerous arthropod agricultural, veterinary and forestry pests. Beauveria is typically deployed in one or more inundative applications of large numbers of aerial conidia in dry or liquid formulations, in a chemical paradigm. Mass production is mainly practiced by solid-state fermentation to yield hydrophobic aerial conidia, which remain the principal active ingredient of mycoinsecticides. More robust and cost-effective fermentation and formulation downstream platforms are imperative for its overall commercialization by industry. Hence, where economics allow, submerged liquid fermentation provides alternative method to produce effective and stable propagules that can be easily formulated as dry stable preparations. Formulation also continues to be a bottleneck in the development of stable and effective commercial Beauveria-mycoinsecticides in many countries, although good commercial formulations do exist. Future research on improving fermentation and formulation technologies coupled with the selection of multi-stress tolerant and virulent strains is needed to catalyze the widespread acceptance and usefulness of this fungus as a cost-effective mycoinsecticide. The role of Beauveria as one tool among many in integrated pest management, rather than a stand-alone management approach, needs to be better developed across the range of crop systems. Here, we provide an overview of mass-production and formulation strategies, updated list of registered commercial products, major biocontrol programs and ecological aspects affecting the use of Beauveria as a mycoinsecticide.

Ovicidal effect of chitinase and protease enzymes produced by soil fungi on the camel tick Hyalomma dromedarii eggs (Acari:Ixodidae)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of chitinase and protease enzymes produced by environmentally safe soil Fungi; Aspergillus sp. NRC 4/5H; Mucor sp. NRC 5; Trichoderma sp. NRC 4/56; Aspergillus sojae; Mucor ranosisinus; Aspergillus oryzae on embryo development of the camel tick Hyalomma dromedarii eggs. The experiment was carried out on the 7 day aged eggs. Concentrations of the chitinase and protease crude enzymes [1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 and 1:5 (v/v)] were prepared from six stock solutions whose concentrations were 5 units/ml each. The prepared chitinase and protease enzymes produced by soil fungi were tested in vitro study for eradication of ticks. Ovicidal effect of the chitin concentrations of extracellular lytic enzymes (chitinase) produced by Aspergillus sp NRC 4/5H, Mucor sp. NRC 5, Trichoderma sp. NRC 4/56 were tested on H. dromedarii eggs. The results showed that the ovicidal effect increased with increasing the chitin concentration in case of Mucor sp. NRC 5. The maximum inhibitory effect which ranged from 95.3 to 100 % was at concentrations ranging from 1:3 to 1:5 ml/ml, respectively. The results of protease enzymes produced by A. sojae, M. ranosisinus and A. oryzae revealed that, it is highly effective in all concentrations on H. dromedarii eggs. It is indicated that the chitinase and protease enzymes produced by fungal species could be used for biological control of the camel tick infestation to avoid the use of carcinogenic chemical.

From bacteria to human: a journey into the world of chitinases

Chitinases, the enzymes responsible for the biological degradation of chitin, are found in a wide range of organisms from bacteria to higher plants and animals. They participate in numerous physiological processes such as nutrition, parasitism, morphogenesis and immunity. Many organisms, in addition to chitinases, produce inactive chitinase-like lectins that despite lacking enzymatic activity are involved in several regulatory functions. Most known chitinases belong to families 18 and 19 of glycosyl hydrolases, however a few chitinases that belong to families 23 and 48 have also been identified in recent years. In this review, different aspects of chitinases and chi-lectins from bacteria, fungi, insects, plants and mammals are discussed.

Two-stage bile preparation with acetone for recovery of fluorescent aromatic compounds (FACs)

In this study we sought to optimize recovery of fluorescent aromatic compounds (FACs) from the bile of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) injected with 10mg/kg benzo[a]pyrene (BaP). Fractions of pooled bile were hydrolyzed, combined with ten volumes of methanol, ethanol, acetonitrile, or acetone, centrifuged and supernatants were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescent detection (HPLC/FL). As well, to test whether FACs were being lost in solids from the centrifugation, pellets were resuspended, hydrolyzed and mixed with six volumes of the organic solvent that produced best FAC recovery from the supernatant, and subjected to HPLC/FL. Highest FAC concentrations were obtained with 2000μl and 1250μl acetone for supernatants and resuspended pellets respectively. FACs concentrations were negatively correlated with biliary protein content but were unaffected by addition of bovine serum albumin (BSA) followed by no incubation indicating that the presence of proteins in the biliary mixture does not simply interfere with detection of FACs. In another experiment, efficiency of acetone addition was compared to two different liquid-liquid extractions (L-LEs). Acetone additions provided significantly higher biliary FACs than the L-LE methods. The new two-stage bile preparation with acetone is an efficient, inexpensive and easily performed method.

Complementary effect of Phloxine B on the insecticidal efficacy of Isaria fumosorosea SFP-198 wettable powder against greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum West

BACKGROUND

Insecticidal activities of five photoactive dyes against greenhouse whitefly (GWF), Trialeurodes vaporariorum West., in tomatoes were investigated to improve the control efficacy of an entomopathogenic fungal product, Isaria fumosorosea SFP-198 wettable powder (WP). Azorubine, Eosin B, Erythrosine, Brilliant Green and Phloxine B were used in this work, accompanying pyriproxyfen emulsifiable concentrate (EC) as a commercial standard for comparison.

RESULTS

Phloxine B had the highest control efficacy in glasshouse conditions. The most suitable dose of Phloxine B was determined as 0.005 g L(-1) , given the dosage-dependent control efficacy and phytotoxicity of the dye, and its influence on the germination of SFP-198 conidia. In field conditions, SFP-198 WP + Phloxine B (2 + 0.005 g L(-1) ; tank mix) showed 89.1 and 95.3% control efficacy 7 and 14 days post-application, which was significantly higher than the efficacy of SFP-198 WP alone (43.5 and 64.0%), Phloxine B (47.5 and 30.7%) or pyriproxyfen EC (67.7 and 80.2%).

CONCLUSION

Phloxine B cooperates with SFP-198 WP complementarily, possibly in the order of killing action (early: Phloxine B; late: SFP-198 WP). The dye can be incorporated into SFP-198 WP to improve its efficacy and applied to other Hypocrelean entomopathogenic fungal products.