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Lu HL, Gao JF, Guo K, Ji X. Sexual size monomorphism may evolve in lizards with a body size maximizing reproductive performance for both sexes. Curr Zool 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
We used Takydromus septentrionalis, a sexually size-monomorphic lacertid lizard, as a model system to test the hypothesis that sexual size monomorphism may evolve in lizards where reproductive performance is maximized at a similar body size for both sexes. We allowed lizards housed in laboratory enclosures to lay as many clutches (for females) as they could or to mate as many times (for males) as they could in a breeding season. Size-assortative mating was weak but evident in T. septentrionalis, as revealed by the fact that male and female snout-vent lengths (SVLs) in mating pairs were significantly and positively correlated. Mating frequency (indicative of male reproductive performance) varied from 1 to 8 per breeding season, generally increasing as SVL increased in adult males smaller than 67.4 mm snout-vent length (SVL). Clutch frequency varied from 1 to 7 per breeding season, with female reproductive performance (determined by clutch frequency, annual fecundity and annual reproductive output) maximized in females with a SVL of 68.0 mm. Accordingly to our hypothesis, the reproductive performance was maximized in the intermediate-sized rather than the largest individuals in both sexes, and the body size maximizing reproductive performance was similar for both sexes. Future work could usefully investigate other lineages of lizards with sexually monomorphic species in a phylogenetic context to corroborate the hypothesis of this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Liang Lu
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Ecosystem Protection and Restoration, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China
| | - Jian-Fang Gao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Ecosystem Protection and Restoration, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China
| | - Kun Guo
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325035, China
| | - Xiang Ji
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325035, China
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2
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Bose APH, Dabernig-Heinz J, Koch L, Grimm J, Lang S, Hegedűs B, Banda T, Makasa L, Jordan A, Sefc KM. Parentage analysis across age cohorts reveals sex differences in reproductive skew in a group-living cichlid fish, Neolamprologus multifasciatus. Mol Ecol 2022; 31:2418-2434. [PMID: 35170123 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Group-living animals are often faced with complex reproductive decisions, namely how to partition within-group reproduction, how to obtain extra-group reproduction, and how these two means of reproduction should be balanced. The solutions to these questions can be difficult to predict because ecological conditions can affect the scopes for within-group and extra-group reproduction in complex ways. For example, individuals that are restricted from moving freely around their habitats may have limited extra-group reproductive opportunities, but at the same time, groups may live in close proximities to one another, which could potentially have the opposite effect. The group-living cichlid fish, Neolamprologus multifasciatus, experiences such ecological conditions, and we conducted an intensive genetic parentage analysis to investigate how reproduction is distributed within and among groups for both males and females. We found that cohabiting males live in 'high-skew' societies, where dominant males monopolize the majority of within-group reproduction, while females live in 'low-skew' societies, where multiple females can produce offspring concurrently. Despite extremely short distances separating groups, we inferred only very low levels of extra-group reproduction suggesting that subordinate males have very limited reproductive opportunities. A strength of our parentage analysis lies in its inclusion of individuals that spanned a wide age range, from young fry to adults. We outline the logistical circumstances when very young offspring may not always be accessible to parentage researchers, and present strategies to overcome the challenges of inferring mating patterns from a wide age range of offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneesh P H Bose
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany.,Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.,Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | | | - Lukas Koch
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany.,Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.,Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Taylor Banda
- Lake Tanganyika Research Unit, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Mpulungu, Zambia
| | - Lawrence Makasa
- Lake Tanganyika Research Unit, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Mpulungu, Zambia
| | - Alex Jordan
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany.,Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.,Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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3
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Rometsch SJ, Torres‐Dowdall J, Machado‐Schiaffino G, Karagic N, Meyer A. Dual function and associated costs of a highly exaggerated trait in a cichlid fish. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:17496-17508. [PMID: 34938524 PMCID: PMC8668731 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Exaggerated secondary sexual characteristics are apparently costly and seem to defy natural selection. This conundrum promoted the theory of sexual selection. Accordingly, exaggerated secondary sexual characteristics might be ornaments on which female choice is based and/or armaments used during male-male competition. Males of many cichlid fish species, including the adaptive radiation of Nicaraguan Midas cichlids, develop a highly exaggerated nuchal hump, which is thought to be a sexually selected trait. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a series of behavioral assays in F2 hybrids obtained from crossing a species with a relatively small hump and one with an exaggerated hump. Mate-choice experiments showed a clear female preference for males with large humps. In an open-choice experiment with limited territories, couples including large humped males were more successful in acquiring these territories. Therefore, nuchal humps appear to serve dual functions as an ornament for attracting mates and as an armament for direct contest with rivals. Although being beneficial in terms of sexual selection, this trait also imposes fitness costs on males possessing disproportionally large nuchal humps since they exhibit decreased endurance and increased energetic costs when swimming. We conclude that these costs illustrate trade-offs associated with large hump size between sexual and natural selection, which causes the latter to limit further exaggeration of this spectacular male trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina J. Rometsch
- Chair in Zoology and Evolutionary BiologyDepartment of BiologyUniversity of KonstanzKonstanzGermany
| | - Julián Torres‐Dowdall
- Chair in Zoology and Evolutionary BiologyDepartment of BiologyUniversity of KonstanzKonstanzGermany
| | - Gonzalo Machado‐Schiaffino
- Chair in Zoology and Evolutionary BiologyDepartment of BiologyUniversity of KonstanzKonstanzGermany
- Present address:
Department of Functional BiologyUniversity of OviedoOviedoSpain
| | - Nidal Karagic
- Chair in Zoology and Evolutionary BiologyDepartment of BiologyUniversity of KonstanzKonstanzGermany
| | - Axel Meyer
- Chair in Zoology and Evolutionary BiologyDepartment of BiologyUniversity of KonstanzKonstanzGermany
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Ziegelbecker A, Sefc KM. Growth, body condition and contest performance after early-life food restriction in a long-lived tropical fish. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:10904-10916. [PMID: 34429889 PMCID: PMC8366895 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Adverse conditions during early life can cause lasting body size deficits with effects on social and sexual competition, while an accelerated growth response can allow animals to catch up in body size but can be physiologically costly as well. How animals balance growth deficits and growth compensation is predicted to depend on the effects of each on lifetime fitness. We investigated the effects of experimental early-life food restriction on growth, body condition, and adult contest competition in a cichlid fish (Tropheus sp.). Their longevity and aseasonal breeding suggest that, with view on lifetime reproductive success, temporarily growth-restricted Tropheus should rather invest extra time in reaching competitive body size than risk the potential costs of accelerated growth. However, size-selective predation pressure by gape size-limited piscivores may have favored the evolution of an accelerated growth response to early-life delays. Experimentally food-restricted fish temporarily reduced their growth rate compared to a control group, but maintained their body condition factor at the control level throughout the 80-week study period. There was no evidence for an accelerated growth response following the treatment, as the food-restricted fish never exceeded the size-specific growth rates that were measured in the control group. Food-restricted fish caught up with the body size of the control group several months after the end of the treatment period and were as likely as control fish to win size-matched contests over territories. Regardless of feeding regime, there were sex-specific differences in growth rates and in the trajectories of condition factors over time. Females grew more slowly than males but maintained their condition factors at a high level throughout the study period, whereas the males' condition factors declined over time. These differences may reflect sex-specific contributions of condition and body size to adult fitness that are associated with female mouthbrooding and male competition for breeding territories.
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Ziegelbecker A, Remele K, Pfeifhofer HW, Sefc KM. Wasteful carotenoid coloration and its effects on territorial behavior in a cichlid fish. HYDROBIOLOGIA 2020; 848:3683-3698. [PMID: 34720169 PMCID: PMC8549929 DOI: 10.1007/s10750-020-04354-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The famously diverse body coloration of cichlid fish serves communicative functions in mating and social interactions including competition for resources. Here, we examined the effects of a color pattern trait-the width of a yellow bar on a black body-on territorial competition in males and females of a color variant ("Ikola") of the Lake Tanganyika cichlid Tropheus. First, measuring integumentary carotenoid concentrations in the yellow and black body regions, we established that wider yellow bars require more carotenoids allocated to body coloration. However, we also detected high carotenoid concentrations in the black body regions (> 100 µg/g fresh skin), raising questions about the function of non-displayed integumentary carotenoids. Behavioral experiments showed that fish with wider bars were quicker to explore an unfamiliar area of the tank. In experiments including presentations of fish dummies, the bar width of 'territorial' dummies had no effect on the latency time which test fish took to intrude into the dummies' territories. However, male test fish performed fewer aggressive acts against wide-barred than against narrow-barred dummy competitors. Our results suggest that intimidation by wide bars as well as correlations between bar width and explorative behavior may contribute to mediating success in territorial Tropheus "Ikola".
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Klaus Remele
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Schubertstraße 51, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | | | - Kristina M. Sefc
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
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6
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Seasonal and social factors associated with spacing in a wild territorial electric fish. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0228976. [PMID: 32542049 PMCID: PMC7295226 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we focused on the seasonal variation of the determinants of territory size in the weakly electric fish Gymnotus omarorum. This species is a seasonal breeder that displays year-round territorial aggression. Female and male dyads exhibit indistinguishable non-breeding territorial agonistic behavior and body size is the only significant predictor of contest outcome. We conducted field surveys across seasons that included the identification of individual location, measurements of water physico-chemical variables, characterization of individual morphometric and physiological traits, and their correlation to spatial distribution. G. omarorum tolerates a wide range of dissolved oxygen concentration, and territory size correlated positively with dissolved oxygen in both seasons. In the non-breeding season, territory size was sexually monomorphic and correlated only with body size. In the breeding season, territory size no longer correlated with body size but differed between sexes: (i) the overall spatial arrangement was sexually biased, (ii) territory size depended on gonadal hormones in both sexes, which was expected for males, but not previously reported in females, (iii) female territory size showed a positive relationship with gonadal size, and (iv) females showed relatively larger territories than males. This study demonstrates seasonal changes in the determinants of territory size and thus contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms underlying the behavioral plasticity natural territorial behavior.
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Fronk AH, Kim LY, Craig JM, Crampton WGR, Albert JS. Sexual Size Dimorphism in the Macana Tigrina, Gymnotus javari (Gymnotidae, Gymnotiformes). COPEIA 2019. [DOI: 10.1643/ci-18-164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron H. Fronk
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, P.O. Box 43602, Lafayette, Louisiana 70504; (AHF) C00226417@louisiana. edu; and (JSA) . Send reprint requests to AHF
| | - Lesley Y. Kim
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, P.O. Box 43602, Lafayette, Louisiana 70504; (AHF) C00226417@louisiana. edu; and (JSA) . Send reprint requests to AHF
| | - Jack M. Craig
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, P.O. Box 43602, Lafayette, Louisiana 70504; (AHF) C00226417@louisiana. edu; and (JSA) . Send reprint requests to AHF
| | - William G. R. Crampton
- Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, Biological Sciences Bldg., 4110 Libra Drive, Orlando, Florida 32816-2368;
| | - James S. Albert
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, P.O. Box 43602, Lafayette, Louisiana 70504; (AHF) C00226417@louisiana. edu; and (JSA) . Send reprint requests to AHF
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Van Steenberge M, Raeymaekers JAM, Hablützel PI, Vanhove MPM, Koblmüller S, Snoeks J. Delineating species along shifting shorelines: Tropheus (Teleostei, Cichlidae) from the southern subbasin of Lake Tanganyika. Front Zool 2018; 15:42. [PMID: 30459820 PMCID: PMC6234679 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-018-0287-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Species delineation is particularly challenging in taxa with substantial intra-specific variation. In systematic studies of fishes, meristics and linear measurements that describe shape are often used to delineate species. Yet, little is known about the taxonomic value of these two types of morphological characteristics. Here, we used Tropheus (Teleostei, Cichlidae) from the southern subbasin of Lake Tanganyika to test which of these types of characters best matched genetic lineages that could represent species in this group of stenotypic rock-dwelling cichlids. We further investigated intra-population variation in morphology. By linking this to a proxy of a population's age, we could assess the evolutionary stability of different kinds of morphological markers. RESULTS Morphological data was collected from 570 specimens originating from 86 localities. An AFLP approach revealed the presence of five lineages in the southern subbasin: T. moorii, T. brichardi, T. sp. 'maculatus', T. sp. 'Mpimbwe' and T. sp. 'red', which we consider to represent distinct species. Although both types of morphological data supported this classification, a comparison of PST-values that describe inter-population morphological differentiation, revealed a better correspondence between the taxon delineation based on AFLP data and the patterns revealed by an analysis of meristics than between the AFLP-based taxon delineation and the patterns revealed by an analysis of shape. However, classifying southern populations of Tropheus was inherently difficult as they contained a large amount of clinal variation, both in genetic and in morphological data, and both within and among species. A scenario is put forward to explain the current-day distribution of the species and colour varieties and the observed clinal variation across the subbasin's shoreline. Additionally, we observed that variation in shape was larger in populations from shallow shores whereas populations from steep shores were more variable in meristics. This difference is explained in terms of the different timescales at which small and large scale lake level fluctuations affected populations of littoral cichlids at steep and shallow shores. CONCLUSIONS Our results showed meristics to be more evolutionary stable, and of higher taxonomic value for species delimitation in Tropheus, than linear measurements that describe shape. These results should be taken into account when interpreting morphological differences between populations of highly stenotypic species, such as littoral cichlids from the Great East African Lakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Van Steenberge
- Vertebrates Section, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Leuvensesteenweg 13, 3080 Tervuren, Belgium
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Operational Directorate Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Royal Belgian Institute for Natural Sciences, Vautierstraat 29, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | | | - Pascal István Hablützel
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Wandelaarkaai 7, 8400 Oostende, Belgium
| | - Maarten Pieterjan Maria Vanhove
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity & Toxicology, Hasselt University, Agoralaan Gebouw D, B-3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
- Zoology Unit, Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki, P.O.Box 17, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Stephan Koblmüller
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Jos Snoeks
- Vertebrates Section, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Leuvensesteenweg 13, 3080 Tervuren, Belgium
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Ziegelbecker A, Richter F, Sefc KM. Colour pattern predicts outcome of female contest competition in a sexually monomorphic fish. Biol Lett 2018; 14:rsbl.2018.0480. [PMID: 30404866 PMCID: PMC6283925 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2018.0480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Selection arising from social competition over non-mating resources, i.e. resources that do not directly and immediately affect mating success, offers a powerful alternative to sexual selection to explain the evolution of conspicuous ornaments, particularly in females. Here, we address the hypothesis that competition associated with the territoriality exhibited by both males and females in the cichlid fish Tropheus selects for the display of a conspicuous colour pattern in both sexes. The investigated pattern consists of a vertical carotenoid-coloured bar on a black body. Bar width affected the probability of winning in size-matched female-female, but not male-male, contests for territory possession. Our results support the idea that the emergence of female territoriality contributed to the evolution of sexual monomorphism from a dimorphic ancestor, in that females acquired the same conspicuous coloration as males to communicate in contest competition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Florian Richter
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Kristina M Sefc
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Wang G. Sexual size dimorphism of group-living Mongolian gerbils Meriones unguicutalus (Muridae: Gerbillinae). THE EUROPEAN ZOOLOGICAL JOURNAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/24750263.2017.1387942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- G. Wang
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Mississippi State University , Mississippi, USA
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11
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Lehtonen TK. Parental coordination with respect to color polymorphism in a crater lake fish. Behav Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arx052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Kappeler PM, Fichtel C. Eco-evo-devo of the lemur syndrome: did adaptive behavioral plasticity get canalized in a large primate radiation? Front Zool 2015; 12 Suppl 1:S15. [PMID: 26816515 PMCID: PMC4722368 DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-12-s1-s15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Comprehensive explanations of behavioral adaptations rarely invoke all levels famously admonished by Niko Tinbergen. The role of developmental processes and plasticity, in particular, has often been neglected. In this paper, we combine ecological, physiological and developmental perspectives in developing a hypothesis to account for the evolution of 'the lemur syndrome', a combination of reduced sexual dimorphism, even adult sex ratios, female dominance and mild genital masculinization characterizing group-living species in two families of Malagasy primates. RESULTS We review the different components of the lemur syndrome and compare it with similar adaptations reported for other mammals. We find support for the assertion that the lemur syndrome represents a unique set of integrated behavioral, demographic and morphological traits. We combine existing hypotheses about underlying adaptive function and proximate causation by adding a potential developmental mechanism linking maternal stress and filial masculinization, and outline an evolutionary scenario for its canalization. CONCLUSIONS We propose a new hypothesis linking ecological, physiological, developmental and evolutionary processes to adumbrate a comprehensive explanation for the evolution of the lemur syndrome, whose assumptions and predictions can guide diverse future research on lemurs. This hypothesis should also encourage students of other behavioral phenomena to consider the potential role of developmental plasticity in evolutionary innovation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Kappeler
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Claudia Fichtel
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Theis A, Bosia T, Roth T, Salzburger W, Egger B. Egg-spot pattern and body size asymmetries influence male aggression in haplochromine cichlid fishes. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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