Scenario modeling potential eco-efficiency gains from a transition to organic agriculture: life cycle perspectives on Canadian canola, corn, soy, and wheat production

Eco-efficiency estimation with quantile stochastic frontiers: Evidence from the United States

This paper based on quantile stochastic frontier framework constructs quantile eco-efficiency measures. Using the estimates from the quantile stochastic frontier, the eco-performance of the U.S. states for nitrogen oxides (NO_X), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions is evaluated. A decoupling analysis involving the evaluation of the nonsynchronous change among states' economic output and environmental degradation levels is also performed. The findings suggest that U.S. states have followed a decoupling process among their GDP and emission levels over the period 1990-2017. In addition, a quantile eco-productivity change estimator is presented alongside with its main components (i.e. quantile eco-technical change and quantile eco-efficiency change). Our findings suggest that over the examined period states' eco-productivity levels have been improved driven both from their eco-technical and eco-efficiency change levels.

The Environmental Impact of Poplar Stand Management: A Life Cycle Assessment Study of Different Scenarios

The circular economy will play an important role in the reduction of carbon emissions and poplar might be one of the winning choices according to sustainable development. As for agricultural crops, high-quality production is strictly related to genetic variability and best management practice. The main objective of this study was to analyze different stand management options to quantify differences on carbon emission and environmental impacts. Moreover, the study was focused on the assessment of differences between standard poplar management for veneer and poplar management according to sustainable production (such as the PEFC certification scheme). The system boundaries embraced fertilization (inorganic or organic), agricultural operations, machinery, and field emissions associated with poplar cultivation. The environmental impacts were quantified by a life cycle assessment (LCA) calculation using SIMAPRO software v8.0 with different databases. The primary data of poplar stands were collected during a decades-long Italian experience. A reduction of carbon emissions was observed in the stand managed with MSA clones (Case “Mezzi PEFC”), and negative emissions were observed due to organic fertilization (scenarios 7m-29 t CO2-eq ha−1 and 26M-129 t CO2-eq ha−1). In all cultivation scenarios, the environmental impacts were lower than conventional crops in the study area, such as corn. A higher impact was observed in the 26M scenario with oversized machinery for stand management. These data can also contribute to poplar stand modeling and represent a basis for future research developments in this field.

Energy Consumption and Its Structures in Food Production Systems of the Visegrad Group Countries Compared with EU-15 Countries

While joining the European Union (EU) in 2004, the countries of the Visegrad Group (V4) had to face a major challenge in the context of adapting to the EU standards in the field of energy use and energy efficiency. One of the sectors that heavily depends on the use of energy (mainly from fossil fuels) is the food production system, whose energy transformation is essential for future food security. The study aimed to measure the use of energy and its structures in the food production systems of the V4 countries and the EU-15 countries in relation to the implementation of the EU energy targets. The targets assumed, among other things, a reduction in overall energy use and an increase in the share of renewables in the energy mix. The proprietary method based on the assumptions of lifecycle assessment was applied to measure energy consumption in the food production systems with the use of input–output tables and energy accounts, which are part of the World Input–Output Database. The research shows a decreasing share of the food production systems in energy use of the V4 countries, while in the EU-15 countries, it remains on average at a stable, low level (around 4.4%). The discussed share for Poland averaged 8.8% in the period considered, for Hungary 7.6%, for the Czech Republic 3.8%, and for Slovakia 3.3%. The share of renewables in energy use of the food production systems is growing. However, in some countries of the EU-15, it increases at a slower pace than the assumed strategic goals, mainly in the countries that are the largest food producers in the EU. For Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and Italy, the average deviation of the share of renewables use in the food production system from the 2020 target for the entire economy is around 12 percentage points. In the case of V4 countries, the share of renewable energy use in food production systems is close to the assumed strategic targets.

Carbon, energy and water footprints analysis of rapeseed oil production: A case study in China

As the largest consumer of rapeseed oil in the world, China should consider the environmental effect of rapeseed oil production. However, only a few improvement measures have been proposed. To fill this gap, this study analyzed the energy, carbon and water footprints of rapeseed oil production based on the International Organization for Standardization standards using the framework of life cycle assessment. Results show that most of the energy, carbon, and water footprint of rapeseed oil production can be contributed to the direct processes of rapeseed cultivation, and the indirect processes of transport and fertilizer/diesel production. The value of energy and carbon footprints are calculated as 726.07 kg oil eq and 3889.75 kg CO² eq, respectively. For the water footprint, the values of acidification, aquatic eutrophication, carcinogens, freshwater ecotoxicity, water scarcity, and non-carcinogens are 14.24 kg SO₂ eq, 4.53 kg PO₄^-3 eq, 6.72 × 10^-5Case, 5.43 × 10⁴ PAF.m³.d, 437.62 m³ deprived, and 1.88 × 10^-5 case, respectively. Spatial analysis shows that the total environmental impacts of rapeseed production are concentrated in Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, and Jiangxi Provinces. Correlation analysis reveals the positive correlation of human health and ecosystem quality with fertilizer application and pesticide loss. In general, the environmental effect can be effectively reduced by adjusting the industrial layout to shorten the distance of transport, improve the fine cultivation degree in low-yield areas, and decrease the use of pesticides in the hilly region of southern China.

Economic Energy Efficiency of Food Production Systems

The current global population growth forecast carries with it a global increase in demand for food. In order to meet this demand, it is necessary to increase production, which requires an increase in energy consumption. However, forecasted energy production growth is insufficient and traditional sources of energy are limited; hence, it is necessary to strive for greater energy efficiency in food production systems. The study aimed to compare the economic energy efficiency of food production systems in selected countries and identify the sources of diversification in this field. As a measure of energy efficiency, the indicators of the energy intensity of food production were used in this study. To calculate these indicators, a method based on input-output life-cycle assessment assumptions was used, which enables researchers to obtain fully comparable results between countries. The study showed that despite an increase in energy consumption in the food production systems of the analyzed countries by an average of 27%, from 19.3 EJ to 24.5 EJ, from 2000 to 2014, their energy intensity decreased, on average, by more than 18%, from 8.5 MJ/USD to 6.9 MJ/USD. This means that energy efficiency improvements are possible even under conditions of increased energy consumption, which in turn, means that food production can increase significantly. In the case of developed countries, the main inefficiencies are found in agricultural production, while in developing countries, they are observed in the food industry. Decision-makers should also pay attention to the high level of energy intensity that results from the supply of inputs to agriculture and the food industry because there is great potential for the improvement of energy efficiency in this field, especially because energy consumption associated with supply constitutes a major part of total consumption in the food production systems of developed countries.

Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Rapeseed and Rapeseed Oil Produced in Northern Europe: A Latvian Case Study

There is a major international effort to improve the availability of data for life cycle assessment (LCA), as these assessments have become one of the main pillars driving European policy with respect to the sustainable use of resources. However, there is still a lack of data even for Europe. This study presents a cradle-to-farm gate assessment, or LCA, of winter and spring rapeseed produced in the northern European country of Latvia. The LCA model is based on an in-depth and up-to-date agricultural practice used in the region and covers the time span of 2008–2016. An LCA of rapeseed oil produced by cold pressing was carried out. The environmental impact assessment was calculated with the ReCiPe impact assessment method version 1.03, a hierarchical (H) perspective, along with the cumulative energy demand method v1.11. Cultivation of winter rapeseed has a lower environmental impact than cultivation of spring rapeseed due to higher agricultural inputs and higher yield. The greatest impact is on human health. Mineral fertilizers (production and application) and agricultural machinery are responsible for the greatest environmental impact. The results for the mill stage of rapeseed oil demonstrated that the choice of the allocation method has a significant impact on the environmental performance results.

The greenhouse gas impacts of converting food production in England and Wales to organic methods

Agriculture is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and must feature in efforts to reduce emissions. Organic farming might contribute to this through decreased use of farm inputs and increased soil carbon sequestration, but it might also exacerbate emissions through greater food production elsewhere to make up for lower organic yields. To date there has been no rigorous assessment of this potential at national scales. Here we assess the consequences for net GHG emissions of a 100% shift to organic food production in England and Wales using life-cycle assessment. We predict major shortfalls in production of most agricultural products against a conventional baseline. Direct GHG emissions are reduced with organic farming, but when increased overseas land use to compensate for shortfalls in domestic supply are factored in, net emissions are greater. Enhanced soil carbon sequestration could offset only a small part of the higher overseas emissions.

The greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential of organic methods is poorly understood. Here, the authors assess the GHG impact of a 100% shift to organic food production in England and Wales and find that direct GHG emissions are reduced with organic farming, but when increased land use abroad to allow for production shortfalls is factored in, GHG emissions are elevated well-above the baseline.

Evaluation of eco-efficiency in China from 1978 to 2016: Based on a modified ecological footprint model

Eco-efficiency has become an important indicator for measuring sustainable development that emphasizes multiple dividends including basic needs, economic growth, resource conservation, and environmental protection. In this paper, we firstly modify the traditional ecological footprint (EF) model through amending the equivalence factors and enriching the account types to estimate the ecological pressure in China. Then, we evaluate the annual eco-efficiency of China based on the modified EF model from the perspectives of biological needs, resource consumption, and environmental pollution from the reform and opening-up until recently. Finally, the decoupling status between resource consumption, pollution emissions and economic growth is explored. The results indicated that: (1) The per capita EF of China increased from 1.83hectares (ha) in 1978 to 6.98ha in 2016, in which EF of energy experienced a significant increase and accounted for the largest proportion of total per capita EF in 2016, followed by air pollution and freshwater; (2) the total eco-efficiency in China increased from 210yuan/ha in 1978 to 1235yuan/ha in 2016, in which biological efficiency performed the best starting from 264yuan/ha in 1978 with an annual growth rate of 7.9% to 2016, resource efficiency roughly presented an upward tendency with a decline during 2002-2005, and environmental efficiency pictured a U-shaped curve; (3) "weak decoupling" between resource consumption, pollution emissions and economic growth is the main characteristic at present after undergoing through large fluctuation. Furthermore, implications towards an eco-friendly society are provided.

Tackling the Relevance of Packaging in Life Cycle Assessment of Virgin Olive Oil and the Environmental Consequences of Regulation

Production and consumption of olive oil is very important in Europe, being this product a basic element in the Mediterranean diet since long ago. The project objective is two-fold: a study of the contribution of virgin olive oils (VOOs) usual packaging to the whole life cycle of the product and a study of the environmental consequences of the Spanish Government regulation on VOO packaging. A life cycle assessment (LCA) according to ISO 14044 has been performed using the CML methodology for the impact assessment. The results show that the packaging influence varies from 2 to 300%, depending on the impact category and type of packaging (glass, tin or polyethylene terephtalate). Glass, which is related to higher quality perception by consumers, was found to be the most influencing material (due to its weight); however, this impact may be fairly reduced by applying ecodesign strategies (such as weight reduction and recycled-glass percentage increase). A new Spanish regulation on the mandatory use of non-refillable oilers in HORECA establishments (hotels, restaurants and caterings) aims to provide more quality assurance and better information to consumers; however, it was also found to mean a 74% increase in greenhouse gases emissions. This regulation was deeply discussed at European level and its application was withdraw due to consumers rejection, except for Spain. The findings of the present case study show that LCA and ecodesign should be important tools to be promoted and applied in policy making to reduce non-desirable consequences of regulation.

Linking environment-productivity trade-offs and correlated uncertainties: Greenhouse gas emissions and crop productivity in paddy rice production systems

In comparative life cycle assessments of agricultural production systems, analyses of both the trade-offs between environmental impacts and crop productivity and of the uncertainties specific to agriculture such as fluctuations in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and crop yields are crucial. However, these two issues are usually analyzed separately. In this paper, we present a framework to link trade-off and uncertainty analyses; correlated uncertainties are integrated into environment-productivity trade-off analyses. We compared three rice production systems in Japan: a system using a pelletized, nitrogen-concentrated organic fertilizer made from poultry manure using closed-air composting techniques (high-N system), a system using a conventional organic fertilizer made from poultry manure using open-air composting techniques (low-N system), and a system using a chemical compound fertilizer (conventional system). We focused on two important sources of uncertainties in paddy rice cultivation-methane emissions from paddy fields and crop yields. We found trade-offs between the conventional and high-N systems and the low-N system and the existence of positively correlated uncertainties in the conventional and high-N systems. We concluded that our framework is effective in recommending the high-N system compared with the low-N system, although the performance of the former is almost the same as the conventional system.

Consistent responses of the microbial community structure to organic farming along the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River

Soil microorganisms play a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycling of nutrient elements and maintaining soil health. We aimed to investigate the response of bacteria communities to organic farming over different crops (rice, tea and vegetable) along the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River of China. Compared with conventional farming, organic farming significantly increased soil nutrients, soil enzyme activities, and bacterial richness and diversity. A Venn diagram and principal component analysis revealed that the soils with 3 different crops under organic farming have more number and percent of shared OTUs (operational taxonomic units), and shared a highly similar microbial community structure. Under organic farming, several predominant guilds and major bacterial lineages (Rhizobiales, Thiotrichaceae, Micromonosporaceae, Desulfurellaceae and Myxococcales) contributing to nutrient (C, N, S and P) cycling were enriched, whereas the relative abundances of acid and alkali resistant microorganisms (Acidobacteriaceae and Sporolactobacillaceae) were increased under conventional farming practices. Our results indicated that, for all three crops, organic farming have a more stable microflora and the uniformity of the bacterial community structure. Organic agriculture significantly increased the abundance of some nutrition-related bacteria, while reducing some of the abundance of acid and alkali resistant bacteria.

Eco-Efficiency Model for Evaluating Feedlot Rations in the Great Plains, United States

Environmental impacts attributable to beef feedlot production provide an opportunity for economically linked efficiency optimization. Eco-efficiency models are used to optimize production and processes by connecting and quantifying environmental and economic impacts. An adaptable, objective eco-efficiency model was developed to assess the impacts of dietary rations on beef feedlot environmental and fiscal cost. The hybridized model used California Net Energy System modeling, life cycle assessment, principal component analyses (PCA), and economic analyses. The model approach was based on 38 potential feedlot rations and four transportation scenarios for the US Great Plains for each ration to determine the appropriate weight of each impact. All 152 scenarios were then assessed through a nested PCA to determine the relative contributing weight of each impact and environmental category to the overall system. The PCA output was evaluated using an eco-efficiency model. Results suggest that water, ecosystem, and human health emissions were the primary impact category drivers for feedlot eco-efficiency scoring. Enteric CH emissions were the greatest individual contributor to environmental performance (5.7% of the overall assessment), whereas terrestrial ecotoxicity had the lowest overall contribution (0.2% of the overall assessment). A well-balanced ration with mid-range dietary and processing energy requirements yielded the most eco- and environmentally efficient system. Using these results, it is possible to design a beef feed ration that is more economical and environmentally friendly. This methodology can be used to evaluate eco-efficiency and to reduce researcher bias of other complex systems.

Essential amino acids: master regulators of nutrition and environmental footprint?

The environmental footprint of animal food production is considered several-fold greater than that of crops cultivation. Therefore, the choice between animal and vegetarian diets may have a relevant environmental impact. In such comparisons however, an often neglected issue is the nutritional value of foods. Previous estimates of nutrients’ environmental footprint had predominantly been based on either food raw weight or caloric content, not in respect to human requirements. Essential amino acids (EAAs) are key parameters in food quality assessment. We re-evaluated here the environmental footprint (expressed both as land use for production and as Green House Gas Emission (GHGE), of some animal and vegetal foods, titrated to provide EAAs amounts in respect to human requirements. Production of high-quality animal proteins, in amounts sufficient to match the Recommended Daily Allowances of all the EAAs, would require a land use and a GHGE approximately equal, greater o smaller (by only ±1-fold), than that necessary to produce vegetal proteins, except for soybeans, that exhibited the smallest footprint. This new analysis downsizes the common concept of a large advantage, in respect to environmental footprint, of crops vs. animal foods production, when human requirements of EAAs are used for reference.

Towards a methodology to formulate sustainable diets for livestock: accounting for environmental impact in diet formulation

The objective of this study was to develop a novel methodology that enables pig diets to be formulated explicitly for environmental impact objectives using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. To achieve this, the following methodological issues had to be addressed: (1) account for environmental impacts caused by both ingredient choice and nutrient excretion, (2) formulate diets for multiple environmental impact objectives and (3) allow flexibility to identify the optimal nutritional composition for each environmental impact objective. An LCA model based on Canadian pig farms was integrated into a diet formulation tool to compare the use of different ingredients in Eastern and Western Canada. By allowing the feed energy content to vary, it was possible to identify the optimum energy density for different environmental impact objectives, while accounting for the expected effect of energy density on feed intake. A least-cost diet was compared with diets formulated to minimise the following objectives: non-renewable resource use, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential and a combined environmental impact score (using these four categories). The resulting environmental impacts were compared using parallel Monte Carlo simulations to account for shared uncertainty. When optimising diets to minimise a single environmental impact category, reductions in the said category were observed in all cases. However, this was at the expense of increasing the impact in other categories and higher dietary costs. The methodology can identify nutritional strategies to minimise environmental impacts, such as increasing the nutritional density of the diets, compared with the least-cost formulation.

Potential for Integrating Diffusion of Innovation Principles into Life Cycle Assessment of Emerging Technologies

Life cycle assessment (LCA) measures cradle-to-grave environmental impacts of a product. To assess impacts of an emerging technology, LCA should be coupled with additional methods that estimate how that technology might be deployed. The extent and manner that an emerging technology diffuses throughout a region shapes the magnitude and type of environmental impacts. Diffusion of innovation is an established field of research that analyzes the adoption of new innovations, and its principles can be used to construct scenario models that enhance LCA of emerging technologies. Integrating diffusion modeling techniques with an LCA of emerging technology can provide estimates for the extent of market penetration, the displacement of existing systems, and the rate of adoption. Two general perspectives of application are macro-level diffusion models that use a function of time to represent adoption, and microlevel diffusion models that simulate adoption through interactions of individuals. Incorporating diffusion of innovation concepts complement existing methods within LCA to inform proactive environmental management of emerging technologies.

Accounting for uncertainty in the quantification of the environmental impacts of Canadian pig farming systems

The objective of the study was to develop a life cycle assessment (LCA) for pig farming systems that would account for uncertainty and variability in input data and allow systematic environmental impact comparisons between production systems. The environmental impacts of commercial pig production for 2 regions in Canada (Eastern and Western) were compared using a cradle-to-farm gate LCA. These systems had important contrasting characteristics such as typical feed ingredients used, herd performance, and expected emission factors from manure management. The study used detailed production data supplied by the industry and incorporated uncertainty/variation in all major aspects of the system including life cycle inventory data for feed ingredients, animal performance, energy inputs, and emission factors. The impacts were defined using 5 metrics-global warming potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential (EP), abiotic resource use, and nonrenewable energy use-and were expressed per kilogram carcass weight at farm gate. Eutrophication potential was further separated into marine EP (MEP) and freshwater EP (FEP). Uncertainties in the model inputs were separated into 2 types: uncertainty in the data used to describe the system (α uncertainties) and uncertainty in impact calculations or background data that affects all systems equally (β uncertainties). The impacts of pig production in the 2 regions were systematically compared based on the differences in the systems (α uncertainties). The method of ascribing uncertainty influenced the outcomes. In eastern systems, EP, MEP, and FEP were lower (P < 0.05) when assuming that all uncertainty in the emission factors for leaching from manure application was β. This was mainly due to increased EP resulting from field emissions for typical ingredients in western diets. When uncertainty in these emission factors was assumed to be α, only FEP was lower in eastern systems (P < 0.05). The environmental impacts for the other impact categories were not significantly different between the 2 systems, despite their aforementioned differences. In conclusion, a probabilistic approach was used to develop an LCA that systematically dealt with uncertainty in the data when comparing multiple environmental impacts measures in pig farming systems for the first time. The method was used to identify differences between Canadian pig production systems but can also be applied for comparisons between other agricultural systems that include inherent variation.

Eco-efficiency of agricultural water systems: Methodological approach and assessment at meso-level scale

This study presents a methodological framework for the meso-level eco-efficiency assessment of agricultural water systems using a life-cycle system-based approach. The methodology was applied to the Sinistra Ofanto irrigation scheme, located in Southern Italy, where about 28,165 ha are under irrigation. The environmental performance of the system was evaluated through a set of selected mid-point environmental impact categories while the economic performance was measured using the total value added to the system's final products due to water use and the adopted management practices. Both economic performance and environmental performance were measured at different stages and for each stakeholder in the value chain. A distinction was made between foreground and background systems referring, respectively, to the processes that occurred inside the water system boundaries and those used for the production of supplementary resources. The analysis revealed that the major environmental burdens are: i) the freshwater resource depletion (i.e. excessive groundwater pumping), ii) climate change (i.e. direct emissions due to fertilizer use and diesel combustion), and iii) eutrophication (as a result of excessive application of N and P fertilizers). A considerable impact was observed on the background system where energy, fuel and agrochemicals were produced thereby confirming the prominent role of background processes in the comprehensive eco-efficiency assessment. The presented methodology aimed at the quantitative assessment of the eco-efficiency level rather than at the identification of the most affected environmental category. Hence, the results can be used to compare the performance of the system from one year to the next, among different stakeholders (water users) and/or to assess the impact of adopting innovative technologies and management practices. Moreover, the presented approach is useful for comparing the performance among different agricultural water systems and also in respect to other meso-level water systems in a cross-sectorial analysis.

Measuring the environmental effects of organic farming: A meta-analysis of structural variables in empirical research

This study examined the structural variables affecting the environmental effects of organic farming compared to those of conventional farming. A meta-analysis based on 107 studies and 360 observations published from 1977 to 2012 compared energy efficiency (EE) and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) for organic and conventional farming. The meta-analysis systematically analyzed the results of earlier comparative studies and used logistic regression to identify the structural variables that contributed to differences in the effects of organic and conventional farming on the environment. The statistical evidence identified characteristics that differentiated the environmental effects of organic and conventional farming, which is controversial. The results indicated that data sources, sample size and product type significantly affected EE, whereas product type, cropping pattern and measurement unit significantly affected the GHGE of organic farming compared to conventional farming. Superior effects of organic farming on the environment were more likely to appear for larger samples, primary data rather than secondary data, monocropping rather than multicropping, and crops other than fruits and vegetables. The environmental effects of organic farming were not affected by the study period, geographic location, farm size, cropping pattern, or measurement method.

Impact of management strategies on the global warming potential at the cropping system level

Estimating the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural systems is important in order to assess the impact of agriculture on climate change. In this study experimental data supplemented with results from a biophysical model (DNDC) were combined with life cycle assessment (LCA) to investigate the impact of management strategies on global warming potential of long-term cropping systems at two locations (Breton and Ellerslie) in Alberta, Canada. The aim was to estimate the difference in global warming potential (GWP) of cropping systems due to N fertilizer reduction and residue removal. Reducing the nitrogen fertilizer rate from 75 to 50 kg N ha(-1) decreased on average the emissions of N2O by 39%, NO by 59% and ammonia volatilisation by 57%. No clear trend for soil CO2 emissions was determined among cropping systems. When evaluated on a per hectare basis, cropping systems with residue removal required 6% more energy and had a little change in GWP. Conversely, when evaluated on the basis of gigajoules of harvestable biomass, residue removal resulted in 28% less energy requirement and 33% lower GWP. Reducing nitrogen fertilizer rate resulted in 18% less GWP on average for both functional units at Breton and 39% less GWP at Ellerslie. Nitrous oxide emissions contributed on average 67% to the overall GWP per ha. This study demonstrated that small changes in N fertilizer have a minimal impact on the productivity of the cropping systems but can still have a substantial environmental impact.

Environmental impacts of French and Brazilian broiler chicken production scenarios: an LCA approach

This study compared the environmental burdens of two broiler chicken production systems in Brazil and two in France. One Brazilian system represents large-scale production in the Center-West region of the country; the other is a small-scale production in the South. One of the French systems represents an extensive broiler chicken production system, known as "Label Rouge"; the other is a standard system. Life-cycle impact assessments were performed using the CML-IA characterization method. The main functional unit adopted was 1 tonne of cooled and packaged chicken, ready for distribution. For the systems and impacts studied, production scale did not affect the environmental impact, but production intensity did. The extensive Label Rouge system had the largest impact among the impact categories studied. This resulted principally from the high feed-conversion ratio of this production system (3.1 kg of feed per kg of live weight) in conjunction with the fact that the feed-production stage contributed most to the overall impact. The contribution of deforestation to the crop-production stage was significant, particularly for climate change, equaling 19% of total emissions of CO2eq per tonne of cooled and packaged chicken, in the system of the Center-West of Brazil. The French systems were also affected, since they import crops from Brazil. The system of southern Brazil had less climate change impact because there is no longer deforestation in southern Brazil for crop production.

Assessing farming eco-efficiency: a Data Envelopment Analysis approach

This paper assesses farming eco-efficiency using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) techniques. Eco-efficiency scores at both farm and environmental pressure-specific levels are computed for a sample of Spanish farmers operating in the rain-fed agricultural system of Campos County. The determinants of eco-efficiency are then studied using truncated regression and bootstrapping techniques. We contribute to previous literature in this field of research by including information on slacks in the assessment of the potential environmental pressure reductions in a DEA framework. Our results reveal that farmers are quite eco-inefficient, with very few differences emerging among specific environmental pressures. Moreover, eco-inefficiency is closely related to technical inefficiencies in the management of inputs. Regarding the determinants of eco-efficiency, farmers benefiting from agri-environmental programs as well as those with university education are found to be more eco-efficient. Concerning the policy implications of these results, public expenditure in agricultural extension and farmer training could be of some help to promote integration between farming and the environment. Furthermore, Common Agricultural Policy agri-environmental programs are an effective policy to improve eco-efficiency, although some doubts arise regarding their cost-benefit balance.

Not all salmon are created equal: life cycle assessment (LCA) of global salmon farming systems

We present a global-scale life cycle assessment of a major food commodity, farmed salmon. Specifically, we report the cumulative energy use, biotic resource use, and greenhouse gas, acidifying, and eutrophying emissions associated with producing farmed salmon in Norway, the UK, British Columbia (Canada), and Chile, as well as a production-weighted global average. We found marked differences in the nature and quantity of material/energy resource use and associated emissions per unit production across regions. This suggests significant scope for improved environmental performance in the industry as a whole. We identify key leverage points for improving performance, most notably the critical importance of least-environmental cost feed sourcing patterns and continued improvements in feed conversion efficiency. Overall, impacts were lowest for Norwegian production in most impact categories, and highest for UK farmed salmon. Our results are of direct relevance to industry, policy makers, eco-labeling programs, and consumers seeking to further sustainability objectives in salmon aquaculture.