Assessing landscape functions with broad-scale environmental data: insights gained from a prototype development for Europe

Spatial-temporal evolution of production-living-ecological space and layout optimization strategy in eco-sensitive areas: a case study of typical area on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China

To achieve sustainable development goals and to solve environmental problems, land resources in eco-sensitive areas should be used and optimized. Qinghai, which is an important eco-sensitive area in China, represents a typical ecological vulnerable region on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Using land use/cover data for 2000, 2010 and 2020, this study applied a series of quantitative methods to analyze the spatial pattern and structure of the production-living-ecological space (PLES) in Qinghai. The results indicated that the spatial pattern of the PLES in Qinghai was stable over time, but the spatial distribution was very different. The structure of the PLES in Qinghai was stable, and the proportion of each space from high to low was ecological (81.01%), production (18.13%) and living (0.86%). We found that the proportion of ecological space in both the Qilian Mountains and the Three River Headwaters Region was lower than the rest of the study area, except for the Yellow River-Huangshui River Valley. Our study objectively and credibly presented the characteristics of the PLES in an important eco-sensitive area in China. This study further formulated targeted policy suggestions to provide a basis for regional sustainable development, ecological environment protection, and land and space optimization in Qinghai.

Assessment of the Carrying Capacity and Suitability of Spatial Resources and the Environment and Diagnosis of Obstacle Factors in the Yellow River Basin

The assessment of the carrying capacity and suitability of spatial resources and the environment can provide effective guidance for regional planning and make vital contributions to the high-quality advancement of society and the economy. Additionally, this scientific evaluation of the spatial carrying capacity and suitability of urban production-living-ecological space (PLES) has important scientific value as well as practical significance for territorial spatial planning. This paper takes the cities along the Yellow River Basin (YRB) as the research object; establishes the PLES resource and environment carrying capacity evaluation index system; uses the multi-indicator superposition method and entropy weight method to evaluate the ecological importance, production and life carrying capacity of 78 cities in the YRB from 2010 to 2020; obtains the final ecological importance, production and life suitability levels based on the carrying capacity combined with the location conditions; and uses exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA), the barrier degree model and other methods to determine the cities' spatial and temporal patterns and influencing factors. The findings indicate that: (1) Ecological importance is characterized by "high upstream and low downstream"; the suitability for production is higher mainly in the eastern coastal area; the suitability of life as a whole is increasing, and the higher grade is in some provincial capitals and surrounding cities. (2) The local Moran's I all passed the test, and the relationship between PLES showed a significant positive spatial correlation. The clustering characteristics of ecological importance and production suitability are strong, while the clustering characteristics of suitability for living functions are relatively weak. (3) Biodiversity, significance of water conservation and significance of wind and grit control functions are the main barrier factors affecting the ecological importance of the YRB; industrial value-added output per unit of industrial land, number of industrial enterprises above the scale and GDP per capita are the dominant factors affecting the production suitability of the study area; total water-resource utilization per capita, total sewage treatment per capita and residential land area per capita are the main barrier factors of living suitability.

Evolution Characteristics and Formation Mechanism of Production-Living-Ecological Space in China: Perspective of Main Function Zones

The main function zone (MFZ) is the major strategy of China's economic development and ecological environment protection. Clarifying the logical relationship between "MFZ strategy" and "territorial spatial layout" is vital to construct regional economic layout and territorial spatial supporting system of high-quality development. However, few studies have revealed the evolution process and formation mechanism of the production-living-ecological space (PLES) structure of China's MFZ over a long period of time. To bridge the gap, based on the land use dataset in China from 1980 to 2020, this study analyzed the evolution patterns of PLES in China's MFZs using multiple methods and measured the formation mechanism of PLES in different types of MFZs with the GeoDetector model. Results showed that the spatial structure of China's national territory has evolved drastically in the past 40 years, showing significant horizontal regional differentiation and vertical gradient differentiation. Ecological space has been continuously decreasing, while production space and living space have been continuously increasing, and the evolution of PLES varied significantly in different MFZs. During the study period, the gravity center of PLES in China all moved westward. The spatial distribution pattern of production space and living space was from northeast to southwest, and the ecological space was from east to west. The evolution of China's territorial spatial structure was subject to the combined effects of natural and socio-economic factors, exhibiting significant differences in different MFZs. Land use intensity had the most prominent influence on the formation of PLES, followed by elevation. The influences of different factors on PLES structure were strengthened mainly through two types of nonlinear enhancement and dual-factor enhancement. This study can provide scientific support for the optimal management and high-quality development of territorial space in China.

Valorize to Protect Lucanian Sheep and Goat Biodiversity

Simple Summary

Autochthonous sheep and goat breeds are at risk of extinction as they produce less milk and meat compared to other breeds, around 50% less for milk and 30% less for meat production, leading to a reduction in the number of animals bred. However, thanks to rural policies, sheep and goat biodiversity is recovering and livestock farms can recognize and sustain their added value to the territory, the landscape, the maintenance of biodiversity and to sustainability through the adoption of a local supply chain in the medium and long term. Financial support for farms is not enough, integrated policies are needed to focus on further training and education and to improve communication channels to increase consumer awareness of biodiversity and quality.

Abstract

European agriculture and rural development policies have promoted the diversity and genetic types of autochthonous breeds to increase sheep and goat biodiversity. Agri-environmental measures to support livestock farmers, have been the main tools used by these policies over the last twenty years. The COLAUTOC, “Collection of a seed bank for native sheep and goat breeds and strategies to increase their numbers”, research project in Basilicata, Southern Italy, investigated sheep and goat farms with autochthonous breeds with results proving a reduction in the number of sheep and goat farms in general, particularly those with native breeds at risk of extinction, a clear indication of policy failure with a devastating loss of sheep and goat biodiversity. The COLAUTOC used a variety of methodological tools, including, desk analysis, focus groups, interviews, school workshops and a survey on sheep and goat meat consumption. The results indicated that a recovery in sheep and goat biodiversity could be achieved by supporting farm livestock strategies with a view to diversify production methods and activities, whilst, recognizing the value added to the territory, landscape, biodiversity and sustainability. The strategies identified by the COLAUTOC project require a local vision, using agri-environmental funds to invest in training on innovation for farms, provide tools to improve the quality of life in the rural areas, to increase communication channels to further knowledge and awareness of biodiversity. These strategies could contribute to meeting several 2030 Agenda goals.

Spatiotemporal Evolution and Driving Mechanism of "Production-Living-Ecology" Functions in China: A Case of Both Sides of Hu Line

In order to explore the spatiotemporal evolution of land use function and its driving factors in China, taking both sides of the Hu Line as an example, we used Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis and Geographically Weighted Regression methods to reveal dynamic evolution law, spatial characteristics and influencing factors of the “Production-Living-Ecology” functions of 288 prefecture-level cities on both sides of the Hu Line. The results show that: (1) In the temporal dimension, the coordination of “Production-Living-Ecology” functions of land use in China has been improved, and the Hu Line can be roughly used as the boundary of China’s territorial space use. (2) In the spatial dimension, there is a significant positive spatial correlation between “Production-Living-Ecology” functions of land use in China, and the coordination gap between “Production-Living-Ecology” functions of land use on both sides of the Hu Line is gradually narrowing. (3) In terms of influencing mechanism, the coordination of “Production-Living-Ecology” functions is mainly driven by internal factors and is supplemented by external ones. The influence pattern of most driving factors is consistent with the layout characteristics of “strong east and weak west” of the Hu Line.

Diversification and Spatial Differentiation of Villages’ Functional Types in the New Period of China: Results from Hierarchical Urban-Rural Spatial Relations and Townships Size

In recent years, in rural geographic studies, the topic of multifunctions of rural areas has been gaining increasing interest, especially in China, which, as an agricultural power, is undergoing new urbanization and rural revitalization. As far as China is concerned, to classify administrative villages from the perspective of their functions will contribute to scientifically guiding the configuration of urban-rural factors in terms of different regions and villages multifunctional types. This paper takes 3042 administrative villages of Tai’an city of Shandong province in eastern China as its basic study units and establishes a mapping system between land use types and rural territorial sub-functions, identifies their multifunctional types via cluster analysis, quantitatively analyzes their influencing factors with multivariate logistic regression, and summarizes their spatial structure characteristics. The results show that: 3042 administrative villages in Tai’an city can be functionally classified into seven types. The village multifunctional types are jointly decided by cities and natural production conditions. The distribution of all types of villages shows a “non-agricultural production to agricultural production” outward expansion structure. Our study can expand the research contents and methods of rural territorial multifunction.

Freshwater systems and ecosystem services: Challenges and chances for cross-fertilization of disciplines

Freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened in the world, while providing numerous essential ecosystem services (ES) to humans. Despite their importance, research on freshwater ecosystem services is limited. Here, we examine how freshwater studies could help to advance ES research and vice versa. We summarize major knowledge gaps and suggest solutions focusing on science and policy in Europe. We found several features that are unique to freshwater ecosystems, but often disregarded in ES assessments. Insufficient transfer of knowledge towards stakeholders is also problematic. Knowledge transfer and implementation seems to be less effective towards South-east Europe. Focusing on the strengths of freshwater research regarding connectivity, across borders, involving multiple actors can help to improve ES research towards a more dynamic, landscape-level approach, which we believe can boost the implementation of the ES concept in freshwater policies. Bridging these gaps can contribute to achieve the ambitious targets of the EU's Green Deal.

Mapping trade-offs among urban fringe land use functions to accurately support spatial planning

The land use planning and management of urban fringe areas have become major governmental agendas under the background of continuing periurbanization processes. Quantifying land use functions (LUFs) and their interactions as rationales for spatial planning can aid in formulating a more effective and sustainable land use management system. Considering that most of the previous research on LUFs focused on large-scale regions, research on local-scale districts such as urban fringe is still limited. Therefore, the objective of this work is to map the spatial distribution of LUFs and their level of provision around an urban fringe area, so as to identify LUFs synergies and trade-offs in relation to urban expansion and environmental protection planning. To achieve this target, we have proposed an improved LUFs classification system that was suitable for small-scale regions. Fine scale multivariate datasets were used to meet the practical requirements of spatial planning. The urban fringe areas of Binzhou city in China was taken as a case study to quantify and analyze nine kinds of sub-land use functions. The interactions among LUFs and their cold-hot spots were measured through Spearman correlation analysis and bivariate local Moran's I respectively. The results demonstrated a heterogeneous spatial pattern of multiple LUFs and the diverse interactions among them. The social production function presented an obvious regional distribution, the residents' living functions were greatly affected by the radiation of the urban central areas, and the ecological regulation functions were closely related to the land use types. According to the LUFs clustering results, we proposed two spatial planning-zoning schemes based on the land use function and human utilization intensity. The integrative approach and the proposal of functional zones developed in this paper are applicable to provide a new perspective for spatial planning and peri-urban land use management.

Territories of Faith: 1000 Years of Landscape Multifunctionality in Santa Mariña de Augas Santas (NW Spain)

Landscape multifunctionality is increasingly recognized as an important aspect in sustainability and developmental debates. Yet, how and why a multifunctional landscape configuration develops over time has not been sufficiently studied. Here we present the geoarchaeological investigation of the Santa Mariña de Augas Santas site, in northwestern Spain. We focus on the role of religious practice, and of its interplay with productive strategies, in landscape transformation. A geochemical, mineralogical, and geochronological characterization of the pedo-sedimentary record (including XRF, EA-IRMS, XRD, OSL and 14C measurements) allowed to characterize catchment scale sedimentation processes in relation to agricultural activities. The geographical and chronological coincidence of production functions with documented religious activities demonstrate that both aspects shared geographical spaces during the last millennium. Current landscape multifunctionality at Santa Mariña is thus not the final outcome of a specific evolution, but an essential aspect of traditional land use strategies through history and a driver of change. This work highlights the need of a long-term study of the processes of landscape configuration when assessing the sustainability of traditional productive systems.

Exploring Spatial Variations in the Relationships between Landscape Functions and Human Activities in Suburban Rural Communities: A Case Study in Jiangning District, China

There is a complicated and contradictory relationship between landscape functions and human activities, especially in the suburban rural communities of metropolises. Previous studies focused on human interference to landscape function, ignoring the impact of landscape functions on human activities. Hence, the present study is focused on the impact of landscape function (based on ecosystem services) on human activities in suburban rural communities of China. The study evaluated the intensity of human activities based on big data; furthermore, the authors analyzed the spatial distribution characteristics through spatial autocorrelation, and probed into the spatial variations in the relationship between human activities and landscape functions using ordinary least squares (OLS) and geographically weighted regression (GWR) models. The result indicates that there are obvious spatial distribution differences in the intensity of human activities in suburban rural communities; that is, the intensity decreases from the inner to the outer suburban areas. Positive influencing factors of human activities are construction area, bus station, road network density, and leisure entertainment, among which, construction area is the principal driver; cultural heritage, hydrological regulation, and provision of aesthetics are negatively or positively correlated with human activities in various regions. The results offer insights for the sustainable development of rural environment in suburban areas and the big data-driven rural research.

Construction of a Territorial Space Classification System Based on Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity of Land Use and Its Superior Territorial Space Functions and Their Dynamic Coupling: Case Study on Qionglai City of Sichuan Province, China

Territorial space classification (TSC) provides the basis for establishing systems of national territory spatial planning (NTSP) and supervising their implementation in China, thus has important theoretical and application significance. Most of the current TSC research is related to land use/land cover classification, ignoring the connection of the NTSP policies and systems, failing to consider the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of land use superior territorial space functions (TSFs) and the dynamic coupling between land use and its superior TSFs on the result of TSC. In this study, we integrated the factors influencing the connection of NTSP policies and systems and established a theoretical framework system of TSC from the perspective of spatial form and functional use. By integrating the q-statistic method with spatiotemporal geographical analysis, we propose a method to construct a TSC system for Qionglai City of Sichuan Province in China based on the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of land use superior TSFs and the dynamic coupling between land use and its superior TSFs. It makes up for the deficiency of directly taking land use/land cover classification as TSC and solves the problems of ignoring the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of land use superior TSFs and the dynamic coupling between land use and its superior TSFs. Using this method, we found that the TSC of Qionglai City consists of 3, 7, and 14 first-, second-, and third-level space types, respectively. The key findings from this study are that land use superior TSFs show spatiotemporal heterogeneity in Qionglai, and coupling effects in spatial distribution were noted between land use types and their superior TSFs, as was temporal heterogeneity in the coupling degree and the structure of the TSFs corresponding to the land use types, which show obvious dynamics and non-stationarity of the functional structure. These findings confirm the necessity of considering the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of land use superior TSFs and the dynamic coupling between land use and its superior TSFs in TSC. This method of establishing a TSC system can be used to address a number of NTSP and management issues, and three examples are provided here: (a) zoning of urban, agricultural, and ecological space; (b) use planning of production, living and ecological space; (c) delimitation of urban development boundary, permanent basic farmland protection redline, and ecological protection redline.

A Spatial Decision Support System for Multifunctional Landscape Assessment: A Transformative Resilience Perspective for Vulnerable Inland Areas

The concept of transformative resilience has emerged from the recent literature and represents a way to interpret the potential opportunities for change in vulnerable territories, where a socioeconomic change is required. This article extends the perspective of transformative resilience to an assessment of the landscape multifunctionality of inland areas, exploring the potential of identifying a network of synergies among the different municipalities that is able to trigger a process of territorial resilience. A spatial decision support system (SDSS) for multifunctionality landscape assessment aims to help local actors understand local resources and multifunctional values of the Partenio Regional Park (PRP) and surrounding municipalities, in the South of Italy, stimulating their cooperation in the management of environmental and cultural sites and the codesign of new strategies of enhancement. The elaboration of spatial indicators according to Landscape Services classification and the interaction between the “Analytic Network Process” (ANP) method, spatial weighted overly and geographic information system (GIS) support the identification of a preferable scenario able to activate a transformative resilience strategy in selected vulnerable inland areas, which can be scaled up in other similar contexts.

An Ecological Service System Based Study on Suburban Rural Landscape Multifunction

Suburban rural landscape multifunction has received increasing attention from scholars due to its high demand and impact on main urban areas. However, few studies have been focused on suburban rural landscape multifunction because of data constraints. The present study quantified the four landscape services based on ecological service system, i.e., regulating function (RF), provision function (PF), culture function (CF), and support function (SF), determined the interaction through the Spearman correlation coefficient, and ultimately identified the landscape multifunction hotspots and dominant functions through overlay analysis. The result indicated that suburban rural communities have exhibited the characteristics of regional multifunction, and the landscape multifunction hotspots accounted for 64.2%; it should be particularly noted that, among single-function, dual-function, and multifunction hotspots, both support function, and culture function was dominant, while only one case was found in which the regulating function was dominant. Furthermore, all landscape functions other than SF-CF exhibited certain correlations. The study suggests that planning and management should be performed in future in combination with landscape multifunction to ensure the sustainable development of suburban rural communities.

Ecosystem service potential, flow, demand and their spatial associations: a comparison of the nutrient retention service between a human- and a nature-dominated watershed

Nutrient regulation is an important ecosystem regulating service in watersheds. However, systematic investigations of the spatial associations between the potential, flow, and demand of the nutrient regulation service are still lacking. Therefore, we performed a case study comparing the total phosphorus (TP) retention in the Dianchi Lake (DL) watershed (human-dominated) with that in the Lower Reach of the Zi River (LRZR) watershed (nature-dominated). We used four indicators-TP retention potential, TP retention, TP load, and TP export-to represent the potential, flow, demand, and flow-demand budget of the TP retention service, respectively. We estimated the TP retention and export using the InVEST tool, mapped the four TP indicators and calculated their correlations, and estimated the contributions of different ecosystem types and terrain ranges to TP retention and export. We determined the following: (1) the incongruity between the spatial distribution of the TP retention potential and the other three TP indicators was smaller in the LRZR watershed than in the DL watershed; (2) the TP retention potentials generally increased-while the other three TP indicators decreased-with increases in the elevation gradient in the DL watershed and the slope gradients in both study areas; and (3) paddy fields exhibited the highest TP retention intensity and residential areas exhibited the highest TP export intensity among the major ecosystem types in both study areas. Moreover, the TP retention intensities of dryland crops and residential areas in the DL watershed were much higher than they were in the LRZR watershed. Our findings imply that the flow of the nutrient retention service is influenced more by the service demand than by the service potential and that it is influenced by both landscape composition and pattern. Because of the limitations and uncertainties in the modeling outputs, our results should be carefully used in other studies or in decision-making.

A research framework of land use transition in Suzhou City coupled with land use structure and landscape multifunctionality

Under the premise of facing land-use sustainable development goals, clarifying the process and trend of regional land-use transition (LUT) is of considerable significance to the direction of national land-use optimization in the future. Suzhou City is not only an economically developed area in China but also a leading area of economic transformation and development, which embodies the changing process of regional development path since China's reform and opening up. This paper constructed an integrated research framework of micro-individual land use structure and macro-mixed landscape multifunctionality. It used spatial analysis technology to deeply analyze the LUT process of Suzhou, and quantified change characteristics of land use structure and function in Suzhou from 2000 to 2015. For structure, Suzhou has undergone a large-scale transition during the study period, mainly from farmland to construction land, in which transition speed and degree are at a high level until the trend slows down after 2010. For function, the number of high values of landscape multifunctionality gradually increases. Still, the scope of high-value areas progressively reduces by urban expansion constraints; the multifunctionality around urban expansion area gradually weakens. Besides, forest land, grassland, and other ecological land have the most significant number of land use functions. The comprehensive transition of land use structure and function can give a summary as a circle-layer dynamic change process of urban development. Transition hotspots can be divided into five specific regions of land management and finally realize comprehensive development zoning of urban and rural areas at the township level. LUT research framework based on structure-function coupling will provide ideas for land management mode transformation and contribute to sustainable land spatial planning strategy formulation.

A Review of Changes in Mountain Land Use and Ecosystem Services: From Theory to Practice

Global changes impact the human-environment relationship, and, in particular, they affect the provision of ecosystem services. Mountain ecosystems provide a wide range of such services, but they are highly sensitive and vulnerable to change due to various human pressures and natural processes. We conducted a literature survey that focused on two main issues. The first was the identification of quantitative methods aimed at assessing the impact of land use changes in mountain regions and the related ecosystem services. The second was the analysis of the extent to which the outcomes of these assessments are useful and transferable to stakeholders. We selected papers through a keyword-driven search of the ISI Web of Knowledge and other international databases. The keywords used for the search were mountain land use change and ecosystem service. Quantitative approaches to ecosystem service assessment rely on suitable indicators, therefore land use/land cover can be used as an appropriate proxy. Landscape metrics are a powerful analytical tool; their use can increase the accuracy of assessments and facilitate the mitigation of specific phenomena, such as fragmentation or the reduction of core habitat areas. Mapping is essential: it is the basis for spatial analyzes and eases the interactions between stakeholders. Land use/land cover change is a temporal process, so both past and future approaches are meaningful. It is necessary to enhance information transfer from theory to practice. Increasing stakeholder awareness can lead to suitable management solutions, and, reciprocally, stakeholder feedback can help improve current assessment methodologies and contribute to developing new tools that are suitable for specific problems.

Application of InVEST habitat quality module in spatially vulnerability assessment of natural habitats (case study: Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, Iran)

There has been a growing pressure of human activities, especially road network, on natural habitats of the world, which has led to habitat degradation and loss of ecosystem services. To mitigate the impacts of human activities, appropriate studies quantifying ecosystem services and assessing ecological impacts of road network are essential. The main goal of this study was modeling habitat quality and habitat degradation of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province in the southwestern part of Iran, which is among the most important habitats for wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In this study, we used the habitat quality module of the InVEST software (Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services and Tradeoffs), which was driven from land use/cover data, information on anthropogenic threats, and expert knowledge. We tested the reliability of the habitat quality values by comparing them with the distribution map of wild sheep obtained from the Department of the Environment. Then, to have a more comprehensive assessment of the roads' effects on the natural habitats of this province, considering ecosystem services model, the Spatial Road Disturbance Index (SPROADI) was applied as a landscape index. The results of this study revealed that the east and north eastern parts of the study area which were among the most suitable habitats for wild sheep were highly affected by road network. Overall, findings of our study provided useful information on the spatially explicit distribution of habitat quality and degradation which were a valuable input for conservation planning and enhancing ecosystem services.

Mapping the cumulative impacts of long-term mining disturbance and progressive rehabilitation on ecosystem services

Open-cut coal mining can seriously disturb and reshape natural landscapes which results in a range of impacts on local ecosystems and the services they provide. To address the negative impacts of disturbance, progressive rehabilitation is commonly advocated. However, there is little research focusing on how these impacts affect ecosystem services within mine sites and changes over time. The aim of this study was to assess the cumulative impacts of mining disturbance and rehabilitation on ecosystem services through mapping and quantifying changes at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Four ecosystem services including carbon sequestration, air quality regulation, soil conservation and water yield were assessed in 1989, 1997, 2005 and 2013. Disturbance and rehabilitation was mapped using LandTrendr algorithm with Landsat. We mapped spatial patterns and pixel values for each ecosystem service with corresponding model and the landscape changes were analyzed with landscape metrics. In addition, we assessed synergies and trade-offs using Spearman's correlation coefficient for different landscape classes and scales. The results showed that carbon sequestration, air quality regulation and water yield services were both positively and negatively affected by vegetation cover changes due to mined land disturbance and rehabilitation, while soil conservation service were mainly influenced by topographic changes. There were strong interactions between carbon sequestration, air quality regulation and water yield, which were steady among different spatial scales and landscape types. Soil conservation correlations were weak and changed substantially due to differences of spatial scales and landscape types. Although there are limitations associated with data accessibility, this study provides a new research method for mapping impacts of mining on ecosystem services, which offer spatially explicit information for decision-makers and environmental regulators to carry out feasible policies, balancing mining development with ecosystem services provision.

Identifying Dynamic Changes in Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand for Urban Sustainability: Insights from a Rapidly Urbanizing City in Central China

Identifying the balance and dynamic changes in supply and demand of ecosystem services (ES) can help maintain the sustainability of the regional ecosystem and improve human well-being. To achieve a sustainable ecological management regime in Zhengzhou City, this study presented a comprehensive framework for identifying dynamic changes of ES supply and demand and managing ES. Using land use data of Zhengzhou City in 1995, 2005, and 2015 and incorporating expert knowledge and the ES evaluation matrix, we evaluated the spatiotemporal changes in the ES supply and demand in Zhengzhou. Gradient analysis was conducted to identify urban–rural patterns in the budgets of ES supply and demand. Spatial autocorrelation analysis was employed to identify the hotspot areas of ES surpluses or deficits. The research results show the following: (1) In the past 20 years, the supply-and-demand relationship of ES in Zhengzhou has gradually evolved in a direction where supply falls short of demand. The average budget index of Zhengzhou’s ES supply and demand decreased from 7.30 in 1995 to −4.89 in 2015. Changes in the supply and demand status of ES in Zhengzhou corresponded to the background of rapid urbanization. (2) Urban–rural gradient differences exist in the budgets of ES supply and demand in Zhengzhou. Core development areas, such as the Zhengzhou urban areas, are in deficit, whereas a balance or surplus can be observed in rural areas far from urban centers. (3) The surplus hotspots of ES budgets were mainly distributed in the western and southern mountainous areas of Zhengzhou, and they were scattered and the scope shrank, with a decrease of 2.73 times in 20 years, whereas the deficit hotspots expanded outward with each urban area as the center, with an increase of 5.77%. Ecological management zoning (ecological conservation area, ecological improvement area, and ecological reconstruction area) with the effective guidance of ecological and economic policies could comprehensively improve ES management and achieve urban sustainability. The framework in this study can easily and quickly assess the supply and demand status of ES and provide scientific support for the ecological management in rapidly urbanizing areas.

Berries, greens, and medicinal herbs-mapping and assessing wild plants as an ecosystem service in Transylvania (Romania)

BACKGROUND

Wild edible plants as well as medicinal herbs are still widely used natural resources in Eastern Europe that are frequently accessed by the local population. Ethnobotanical studies rarely give insight to the specific ecosystems in which wild food and medicinal plants grow in a spatially explicit way. The present work assesses the potential of different ecosystems to provide wild plants for food and medicinal use based on 37 selected plant species, gives an estimate on the actual use of wild plants, and allows insights into the motivation of local people to collect wild plants.

METHODS

A number of interdisciplinary methods were used: participatory stakeholder workshops with experts scoring the provisioning capacity of ecosystem types, GIS for representing results (capacity maps), basic data statistics for actual use assessment, and interviews for analysing motivations.

RESULTS

Capacity to provide wild edible plants was assessed highest in broad-leaved forests and wetlands, while for medicinal herbs, orchards were rated best. We could find a multitude of motivations for gathering that could be grouped along four main lines corresponding to major dimensions of well-being (health, habit/tradition, nutrition/income, pleasure/emotional), with health reasons dominating very clearly the range (59% of answers), which can be interpreted as a combination of modern "green" values with a traditional lifestyle. We detected some distinct patterns of motivations between the different social groups analysed with more fundamental needs associated with lower level socio-ecological background.

CONCLUSION

This case study provides an example on the importance of wild plants for locals from several points of view. We emphasize the relevance of these local stakeholder views to be included in decision-making and ecosystem management, which can be achieved by the presented workflow for mapping and assessment of ecosystem services which is also compatible with EU-suggested Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES).

Ecosystem services mapping for green infrastructure planning-The case of Tehran

Cities are responsible for more than 70% of carbon-related energy emissions. In order to cope with the widespread effects of these emissions-in addition to improving technology and the use of green energy-it is necessary to reduce the volume of emissions with the help of green spaces at the point of origin. Green spaces provide extensive ecosystem services that improve the quality of life and urban ecosystem livability. Due to the expansion of urban areas, the volume of ecological resources has declined and these resources have become more disconnected. The ongoing reduction of these ecological resources makes their management and planning a critical necessity. We need to evaluate the multiple benefits of urban ecosystem services for appropriate ecosystem management and integrate those ecological benefits with the social characteristics of neighborhoods. This paper provides some analysis, as the first step, to assess the ecosystem services (ES) provided by the green spaces (supply analyses) and the social-ecological needs in these spaces (needs analyses). Next, these assessments are used to find the urban areas with the highest social-ecological needs and with the lowest supply of green spaces in order to provide a reliable basis for the multi-functional planning of green spaces. These assessments are also used to analyze the status of services provided in the environment and the services needed to respond to the people's cultural and ecological needs.

What is the Development Capacity for Provision of Ecosystem Services in the Czech Republic?

The aim of our study is to identify the evolution of land use and the landscape capacity to provide selected ecosystem services (ESs) over the past 28 years. The results obtained should answer whether the recorded land cover development has manifested in the same way as the development of landscape capacity to provide ESs for four different services. Corine Land Cover (CLC) data are used to describe the land cover for five time periods (1990, 2000, 2006, 2012, and 2018) for the area of interest—the whole of the Czech Republic Identification of persistence area. The main trajectories of land cover developments are calculated using overlay spatial operations in GIS. For each analyzed year of landscape development, land cover is evaluated separately, and basic quantification indicators are calculated. At the same time, the filling capacity of selected ESs is evaluated. The results show that the assessed area had the highest capacity to provide ecological integrity in 1990–2006, and then this slightly decreased due to category changes. From a spatial point of view, the worst development trend is seen for provisioning services, where negative development is represented almost all over the country. Ecological integrity and regulating services have similar spatial characteristics of development.

Analysing the Synergies and Trade-Offs between Ecosystem Services to Reorient Land Use Planning in Metropolitan Bilbao (Northern Spain)

In the last decades, some European cities have undergone important changes in search of a more sustainable development. This is the case for the city of Bilbao (Bizkaia, Basque Country), where a Greenbelt has been maintained surrounding the urban areas allowing the periurban areas to deliver ecosystem services (ES) to society. However, the role of the different ecosystems in the provision of ES is not the same, which can lead to conflicts among them. The aim of this study is to analyze the synergies and trade-offs among the eight most important ES in the Bilbao Metropolitan Greenbelt (BMG) to orient their management strategies towards more multifunctional landscapes. We mapped the ES and overlapped them looking for the most relevant areas for the provision of multiple ES and areas that are mostly lacking ES provision. We identify also existing ES trade-offs and synergies between ES using correlations so that managers can prioritize preservation efforts of land use types in the rest of the area. The results show that provisioning ES had trade-offs with regulating and cultural ES and the latter showed synergies between them. The former are mainly delivered by semi-natural ecosystems, while regulating and cultural ES are delivered mainly by natural ecosystems. Moreover, the most relevant areas for the provision of multiple ES were proposed as potential components of a Green Infrastructure (GI). Their identification and ES bundles could help decision-makers to orient their management strategies towards sustainability in metropolitan areas.

May the matrix be with you! Guidelines for the application of expert-based matrix approach for ecosystem services assessment and mapping

Matrices or look-up tables are increasingly popular flexible tools for ecosystem services mapping and assessment. The matrix approach links ecosystem types or land cover types to ecosystem services by providing a score for ecosystem service (ES) capacity, supply, use, demand or other concepts. Using expert elicitation enables quick and integrative ES scoring that can meet general demand for validated ES mapping and assessment at different scales. Nevertheless, guidance is needed on how to collect and integrate expert knowledge to address some of the biases and limits of the expert elicitation method. This paper aims to propose a set of guidelines to produce ES matrices based on expert knowledge. It builds on existing literature and experience acquired through the production of several ES matrices in several ES assessments carried out in France. We propose a 7-steps methodology for the expert-based matrix approach that aims to promote cogency in the method and coherency in the matrices produced. The aim here is to use collective knowledge to produce semi-quantitative estimates of ES quantities and not to analyse individual or societal preferences or importance of ES. The definition of the objectives and the preparation phase is particularly important in order to define the components of capacity to demand ES chain to be addressed. The objectives and the ES components addressed will influence the composition of the expert panel. We recommend an individual filling of an empty matrix in order to strengthen the statistical analysis of the scores' variability and the analysis of congruency between experts. Expert scoring should follow a process of discussion, information-sharing and collective appropriation of a list of ecosystem types and ES to be assessed. We suggest that the ES matrix should not only focus on ES central scores but also address the variabilities and uncertainties as part of the ES assessment. The analysis of these sources of variability allows the documentation of variations in the ES quantity but also an exploration into the lack of consensus or knowledge gaps that needs to be addressed.

Territorial cohesion through cross-border landscape policy? The European case of the Three Countries Park (BE-NL-DE)

Landscapes can be understood as socialecological systems under constant change. In Europe various territorial dynamics pose persistent challenges to maintaining diverse landscapes both as European heritage and in their capacity to provide vital functions and services. Concurrently, under the competence of cohesion policy, the EU is attempting to improve policy making by better policy coordination and respecting regional specifics. This paper explores the question how a policy dedicated to landscape can help to handle territorial change and support territorial cohesion. It presents results and performances of the ESPON applied research study LP3LP: (1) a common landscape policy for the Three Countries Park, across the Dutch, German and Belgium borders, including a spatial landscape vision, a governance proposal of adaptive landscape management, and thematic strategies dealing with green infrastructure, cultural heritage, complementary biomass and quality production; (2) recommendations at the EU level. In discussing the significance of a landscape approach for EU policy,three dimensions of landscape are linked withimportant aspects of territorial cohesion: ‘landscape as asset’ addressing natural-cultural territorial capital as an indigenous base forsmart, sustainable, and inclusivedevelopment;‘landscape as place’ stressing the relevance of landscape for place-based policies; and ‘landscape as common ground’ highlighting its potential for horizontal, vertical, and territorial integration.

Spatial Bayesian belief networks as a planning decision tool for mapping ecosystem services trade-offs on forested landscapes

An integrated methodology, based on linking Bayesian belief networks (BBN) with GIS, is proposed for combining available evidence to help forest managers evaluate implications and trade-offs between forest production and conservation measures to preserve biodiversity in forested habitats. A Bayesian belief network is a probabilistic graphical model that represents variables and their dependencies through specifying probabilistic relationships. In spatially explicit decision problems where it is difficult to choose appropriate combinations of interventions, the proposed integration of a BBN with GIS helped to facilitate shared understanding of the human-landscape relationships, while fostering collective management that can be incorporated into landscape planning processes. Trades-offs become more and more relevant in these landscape contexts where the participation of many and varied stakeholder groups is indispensable. With these challenges in mind, our integrated approach incorporates GIS-based data with expert knowledge to consider two different land use interests - biodiversity value for conservation and timber production potential - with the focus on a complex mountain landscape in the French Alps. The spatial models produced provided different alternatives of suitable sites that can be used by policy makers in order to support conservation priorities while addressing management options. The approach provided provide a common reasoning language among different experts from different backgrounds while helped to identify spatially explicit conflictive areas.

Evaluation of the accuracy of land-use based ecosystem service assessments for different thematic resolutions

The demand for pragmatic tools for mapping ecosystem services (ES) has led to the widespread application of land-use based proxy methods, mostly using coarse thematic resolution classification systems. Although various studies have demonstrated the limited reliability of land use as an indicator of service delivery, this does not prevent the method from being frequently applied on different institutional levels. It has recently been argued that a more detailed land use classification system may increase the accuracy of this approach. This research statistically compares maps of predicted ES delivery based on land use scoring for three different thematic resolutions (number of classes) with maps of ES delivery produced by biophysical models. Our results demonstrate that using a more detailed land use classification system does not significantly increase the accuracy of land-use based ES assessments for the majority of the considered ES. Correlations between land-use based assessments and biophysical model outcomes are relatively strong for provisioning services, independent of the classification system. However, large discrepancies occur frequently between the score and the model-based estimate. We conclude that land use, as a simple indicator, is not effective enough to be used in environmental management as it cannot capture differences in abiotic conditions and ecological processes that explain differences in service delivery. Using land use as a simple indicator will therefore result in inappropriate management decisions, even if a highly detailed land use classification system is used.

Comparative review of multifunctionality and ecosystem services in sustainable agriculture

Two scientific communities with broad interest in sustainable agriculture independently focus on multifunctional agriculture or ecosystem services. These communities have limited interaction and exchange, and each group faces research challenges according to independently operating paradigms. This paper presents a comparative review of published research in multifunctional agriculture and ecosystem services. The motivation for this work is to improve communication, integrate experimental approaches, and propose areas of consensus and dialog for the two communities. This extensive analysis of publication trends, ideologies, and approaches enables formulation of four main conclusions. First, the two communities are closely related through their use of the term "function." However, multifunctional agriculture considers functions as agricultural activity outputs and prefers farm-centred approaches, whereas ecosystem services considers ecosystem functions in the provision of services and prefers service-centred approaches. Second, research approaches to common questions in these two communities share some similarities, and there would be great value in integrating these approaches. Third, the two communities have potential for dialog regarding the bundle of ecosystem services and the spectrum of multifunctional agriculture, or regarding land sharing and land sparing. Fourth, we propose an integrated conceptual framework that distinguishes six groups of ecosystem services and disservices in the agricultural landscape, and combines the concepts of multifunctional agriculture and ecosystem services. This integrated framework improves applications of multifunctional agriculture and ecosystem services for operational use. Future research should examine if the framework can be readily adapted for modelling specific problems in agricultural management.

A framework for monitoring social process and outcomes in environmental programs

When environmental programs frame their activities as being in the service of human wellbeing, social variables need to be integrated into monitoring and evaluation (M&E) frameworks. This article draws upon ecosystem services theory to develop a framework to guide the M&E of collaborative environmental programs with anticipated social benefits. The framework has six components: program need, program activities, pathway process variables, moderating process variables, outcomes, and program value. Needs are defined in terms of ecosystem services, as well as other human needs that must be addressed to achieve outcomes. The pathway variable relates to the development of natural resource governance capacity in the target community. Moderating processes can be externalities such as the inherent capacity of the natural system to service ecosystem needs, local demand for natural resources, policy or socio-economic drivers. Internal program-specific processes relate to program service delivery, targeting and participant responsiveness. Ecological outcomes are expressed in terms of changes in landscape structure and function, which in turn influence ecosystem service provision. Social benefits derived from the program are expressed in terms of the value of the eco-social service to user-specified goals. The article provides suggestions from the literature for identifying indicators and measures for components and component variables, and concludes with an example of how the framework was used to inform the M&E of an adaptive co-management program in western Kenya.

Uncertainties in ecosystem service maps: a comparison on the European scale

Safeguarding the benefits that ecosystems provide to society is increasingly included as a target in international policies. To support such policies, ecosystem service maps are made. However, there is little attention for the accuracy of these maps. We made a systematic review and quantitative comparison of ecosystem service maps on the European scale to generate insights in the uncertainty of ecosystem service maps and discuss the possibilities for quantitative validation. Maps of climate regulation and recreation were reasonably similar while large uncertainties among maps of erosion protection and flood regulation were observed. Pollination maps had a moderate similarity. Differences among the maps were caused by differences in indicator definition, level of process understanding, mapping aim, data sources and methodology. Absence of suitable observed data on ecosystem services provisioning hampers independent validation of the maps. Consequently, there are, so far, no accurate measures for ecosystem service map quality. Policy makers and other users need to be cautious when applying ecosystem service maps for decision-making. The results illustrate the need for better process understanding and data acquisition to advance ecosystem service mapping, modelling and validation.

Uncertainties in landscape analysis and ecosystem service assessment

Landscape analysis and ecosystem service assessment have drawn increasing concern from research and application at the landscape scale. Thanks to the continuously emerging assessments as well as studies aiming at evaluation method improvement, policy makers and landscape managers have an increasing interest in integrating ecosystem services into their decisions. However, the plausible assessments carry numerous sources of uncertainties, which regrettably tend to be ignored or disregarded by the actors or researchers. In order to cope with uncertainties and make them more transparent for landscape managers, we demonstrate them by reviewing literature, describing an example and proposing approaches for uncertainty analysis. Additionally, we conclude with potential actions to reduce the insecurities accompanying landscape analysis and ecosystem service assessments. As for landscape analysis, the fundamental uncertainty origins are landscape complexity and methodological uncertainties. Concerning the uncertainty sources of ecosystem service assessments, the complexity of the natural system, respondents' preferences and technical problems play essential roles. By analyzing the assessment process, we find that initial data uncertainty pervades the whole assessment and argue that the limited knowledge about the complexity of ecosystems is the focal origin of uncertainties. For analyzing uncertainties in assessments, we propose systems analysis, scenario simulation and the comparison method as promising strategies. To reduce uncertainties, we assume that actions should integrate continuous learning, expanding respondent numbers and sources, considering representativeness, improving and standardizing assessment methods and optimizing spatial and geobiophysical data.

Facing uncertainty in ecosystem services-based resource management

The concept of ecosystem services is increasingly used as a support for natural resource management decisions. While the science for assessing ecosystem services is improving, appropriate methods to address uncertainties in a quantitative manner are missing. Ignoring parameter uncertainties, modeling uncertainties and uncertainties related to human-environment interactions can modify decisions and lead to overlooking important management possibilities. In this contribution, we present a new approach for mapping the uncertainties in the assessment of multiple ecosystem services. The spatially explicit risk approach links Bayesian networks to a Geographic Information System for forecasting the value of a bundle of ecosystem services and quantifies the uncertainties related to the outcomes in a spatially explicit manner. We demonstrate that mapping uncertainties in ecosystem services assessments provides key information for decision-makers seeking critical areas in the delivery of ecosystem services in a case study in the Swiss Alps. The results suggest that not only the total value of the bundle of ecosystem services is highly dependent on uncertainties, but the spatial pattern of the ecosystem services values changes substantially when considering uncertainties. This is particularly important for the long-term management of mountain forest ecosystems, which have long rotation stands and are highly sensitive to pressing climate and socio-economic changes.

Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane ecosystems: the western Himalayas as a case study

BACKGROUND

Conservation of the unique biodiversity of mountain ecosystems needs trans-disciplinary approaches to succeed in a crowded colloquial world. Geographers, conservationists, ecologists and social scientists have, in the past, had the same conservation goals but have tended to work independently. In this review, the need to integrate different conservation criteria and methodologies is discussed. New criteria are offered for prioritizing species and habitats for conservation in montane ecosystems that combine both ecological and social data.

SCOPE

Ecological attributes of plant species, analysed through robust community statistical packages, provide unbiased classifications of species assemblages and environmental biodiversity gradients and yield importance value indices (IVIs). Surveys of local communities' utilization of the vegetation provides use values (UVs). This review suggests a new means of assessing anthropogenic pressure on plant biodiversity at both species and community levels by integrating IVI and UV data sets in a combined analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Mountain ecosystems are hot spots for plant conservation efforts because they hold a high overall plant diversity as communities replace each other along altitudinal and climatic gradients, including a high proportion of endemic species. This review contributes an enhanced understanding of (1) plant diversity in mountain ecosystems with special reference to the western Himalayas; (2) ethnobotanical and ecosystem service values of mountain vegetation within the context of anthropogenic impacts; and (3) local and regional plant conservation strategies and priorities.

Assessing the potential of farming regions to fulfill agro-environmental functions: a case study in tuscany (Italy)

The increasing interest in agro-environmental management entails having tools to assess, monitor and map agro-environmental functions (AEFs) in different regional contexts. In Europe, decision-making in agro-environmental policies generally targets single functions instead of multiple ones and rarely considers the regional variability of agricultural or geo-physical conditions that may influence the fulfillment of functions. We propose and test a method to assess the potential of farming regions to fulfill a set of AEFs. The method was applied in the "Collina interna grossetana" farming region (Italy) and concerned three functions: protection of surface water from nitrates, protection of soil from erosion, and conservation of landscape diversity. These functions were qualified and mapped using various geo-physical and land cover descriptors from common geographical datasets. All of the descriptors were combined using geographical cluster analysis to identify their contribution to the three functions, and thus to assess the potential of the farming region to fulfill these functions. Three levels of potential were calculated, according to the more or less favorable fulfillment of soil and water functions. No totally favorable contribution to the functions was identified in the studied area. Moreover, we mapped the spatial patterns obtained for the different levels of potential. The landscape diversity function was found to be the least variable in the study area, while different patterns were identified for the other functions. In fact, the northern and central sections of the study region were organized more in the form of large core areas of different levels of potential, whereas the southern section presented more boundary areas, small core areas and isolated pixels. The method may help to establish local priorities in agro-environmental management pointing out where the set of functions is completely or partially fulfilled, as well as where and how it is more or less necessary to focus support measures afforded by environmental policies. Such information could help to palliate the current poor consideration of the spatial variability of functions in regional policies.

Multiple ecosystem services of a changing Alpine landscape: past, present and future

In mountain regions, ecosystem services provision is strongly linked to land use, topography and climate, where impacts can be expected under global change. For our study site in the Austrian Alps, we examined the relationship between agricultural activities and multiple ecosystem services on landscape scale from past to future. Modelling of future land-use patterns was based on stakeholder workshops considering different socio-economic and climate scenarios. In the past, land-use intensity was reduced resulting in less forage provision but better regulating services. Future scenarios predict contrasting developments; under conditions of global change, farmers shift the focus of their activities towards tourism, but in times of global economic crisis farming becomes more important again. Developing the local economy facilitates new markets for agricultural products, but projected drought periods will cause an abandonment of farmland. While forest regeneration is valuable for regulating services, it reduces the aesthetic value. Both regulating and cultural services decrease when forage provision is optimized. To ensure multiple ecosystem service provision, agricultural management should be related to ecosystem services and included into land-use policies and agricultural incentives.

Appreciation, use, and management of biodiversity and ecosystem services in California's working landscapes

"Working landscapes" is the concept of fostering effective ecosystem stewardship and conservation through active human presence and management and integrating livestock, crop, and timber production with the provision of a broad range of ecosystem services at the landscape scale. Based on a statewide survey of private landowners of "working" forests and rangelands in California, we investigated whether owners who are engaged in commercial livestock or timber production appreciate and manage biodiversity and ecosystem services on their land in different ways than purely residential owners. Both specific uses and management practices, as well as underlying attitudes and motivations toward biodiversity and ecosystem services, were assessed. Correlation analysis showed one bundle of ecosystem goods and services (e.g., livestock, timber, crops, and housing) that is supported by some landowners at the community level. Another closely correlated bundle of biodiversity and ecosystem services includes recreation, hunting/fishing, wildlife habitat, and fire prevention. Producers were more likely to ally with the first bundle and residential owners with the second. The survey further confirmed that cultural ecosystem services and quality-of-life aspects are among the primary amenities that motivate forest and rangeland ownership regardless of ownership type. To live near natural beauty was the most important motive for both landowner groups. Producers were much more active in management for habitat improvement and other environmental goals than residential owners. As the number of production-oriented owners decreases, developing strategies for encouraging environment-positive management by all types of landowners is crucial.

A multi-scale modelling approach for analysing landscape service dynamics

Shifting societal needs drive and shape landscapes and the provision of their services. This paper presents a modelling approach to visualize the regional spatial and temporal dynamics in landscape service supply as a function of changing landscapes and societal demand. This changing demand can result from different policy targets. In this paper we conceptualise the system in which these dynamics take place by explicitly addressing (i) the multifunctional character of a landscape, (ii) the different spatial levels at which interactions between landscape service supply, demand, and land management occur, and (iii) trade-offs in service supply as a result of land management actions. Next, we translate the resulting conceptual framework into an operational model. As a demonstration, this model is applied to simulate changes in landscape service supply driven by regional policies in a rural region of the Netherlands. This application demonstrates potential trade-offs, which emerge in a spatially explicit way in the region over time. It illustrates the potential relevance of modelling landscape service dynamics for environmental management and decision making.