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Long-term spatiotemporal variation in density of a tropical folivore: responses to a complex disturbance regime. Oecologia 2022; 199:979-994. [PMID: 35930046 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-022-05227-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The Anthropocene is a time of unprecedented and accelerating rates of environmental change that includes press (e.g., climate change) and pulse disturbances (e.g., cyclonic storms, land use change) that interact to affect spatiotemporal dynamics in the density, distribution, and biodiversity of organisms. We leverage three decades of spatially explicit data on the density of a tropical folivore (Lamponius portoricensis [Insecta, Phasmida]) in a hurricane-mediated ecosystem (montane rainforest of Puerto Rico), along with associated environmental attributes, to disentangle the effects of interacting disturbances at multiple spatial scales. Spatiotemporal variation in density at a small spatial scale is affected by disturbance-related characteristics (hurricane severity, time after most recent major hurricane, ambient temperature, and understory temperature), legacies of previous land use, and understory habitat structure. Nonetheless, only a small proportion of spatiotemporal variation in density was related to those characteristics. In contrast, the majority of interannual variation in mean density at a larger scale was related to disturbance characteristics and understory habitat structure. These factors combine to affect a weak and declining trend in the density of L. portoricensis over time. The low resistance of L. portoricensis to Hurricane Hugo, as compared to Hurricanes Georges and Maria, likely arose because a drought followed Hurricane Hugo. The disturbance regime of the region is predicted to include increases in ambient temperatures, frequency of high-intensity storms, and frequency of droughts. Such trends may combine to threaten the conservation status of L. portoricensis, and other species with which it shares similar life history characteristics.
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Prather CM, Belovsky GE. Herbivore and detritivore effects on rainforest plant production are altered by disturbance. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:7652-7659. [PMID: 31346429 PMCID: PMC6635927 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Consumer effects on rainforest primary production are often considered negligible because herbivores and macrodetritivores usually consume a small fraction of annual plant and litter production, even though consumers are known to have effects on plant production and composition in nontropical systems. Disturbances, such as treefall gaps, however, often increase resources to understory food webs, thereby increasing herbivory and feeding rates of detritivores. This increase in consumption could lead to more prominent ecosystem-level effects of consumers after disturbances, such as storms that cause light gaps. We determined how the effects of invertebrate herbivores (walking sticks) and detritivores (litter snails) on understory plant growth may be altered by disturbances in a Puerto Rican rainforest using an enclosure experiment. Consumers had significant effects on plant growth, but only in light gaps. Specifically, herbivores increased plant growth by 60%, and there was a trend for detritivores to reduce plant growth. Additionally, plant biomass tended to be 50% higher with both consumers in combination, suggesting that herbivores may mediate the effects of detritivores by altering the resources available to detritivore food webs. This study demonstrates that disturbance alters the effects of rainforest consumers, and, furthermore, that consumer activity has the potential to change rainforest successional processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelse M. Prather
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Notre DameNotre DameIndiana
- Department of BiologyUniversity of DaytonDaytonOhio
| | - Gary E. Belovsky
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Notre DameNotre DameIndiana
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Prather CM, Belovsky GE, Cantrell SA, González G. Tropical herbivorous phasmids, but not litter snails, alter decomposition rates by modifying litter bacteria. Ecology 2018; 99:782-791. [PMID: 29603190 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Revised: 01/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Consumers can alter decomposition rates through both feces and selective feeding in many ecosystems, but these combined effects have seldom been examined in tropical ecosystems. Members of the detrital food web (litter-feeders or microbivores) should presumably have greater effects on decomposition than herbivores, members of the green food web. Using litterbag experiments within a field enclosure experiment, we determined the relative effects of common litter snails (Megalomastoma croceum) and herbivorous walking sticks (Lamponius portoricensis) on litter composition, decomposition rates, and microbes in a Puerto Rican rainforest, and whether consumer effects were altered by canopy cover presence. Although canopy presence did not alter consumers' effects, focal organisms had unexpected influences on decomposition. Decomposition was not altered by litter snails, but herbivorous walking sticks reduced leaf decomposition by about 50% through reductions in high quality litter abundance and, consequently, lower bacterial richness and abundance. This relatively unexplored but potentially important link between tropical herbivores, detritus, and litter microbes in this forest demonstrates the need to consider autotrophic influences when examining rainforest ecosystem processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelse M Prather
- Department of Biological Sciences, Galvin Life Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46656, USA.,Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research Site, Río Grande, PR 00745, Puerto Rico.,Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, 77004, USA
| | - Gary E Belovsky
- Department of Biological Sciences, Galvin Life Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46656, USA.,Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research Site, Río Grande, PR 00745, Puerto Rico
| | - Sharon A Cantrell
- Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research Site, Río Grande, PR 00745, Puerto Rico.,Department of Biology, Universidad del Turabo Gurabo, Gurabo, PR 00778, Puerto Rico
| | - Grizelle González
- Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research Site, Río Grande, PR 00745, Puerto Rico.,USDA Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Jardín Botánico Sur, 1201 Calle Ceiba, Río Piedras, PR 00926, Puerto Rico
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Elemental concentrations in the frass of saproxylic insects suggest a role in micronutrient cycling. Ecosphere 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
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Winston ME, Herz H. Unpaved roads alter foraging patterns of the leafcutter antAtta colombica. STUDIES ON NEOTROPICAL FAUNA AND ENVIRONMENT 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/01650521.2015.1020702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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6
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Song J, Wu D, Shao P, Hui D, Wan S. Ecosystem carbon exchange in response to locust outbreaks in a temperate steppe. Oecologia 2015; 178:579-90. [PMID: 25663332 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3248-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
It is predicted that locust outbreaks will occur more frequently under future climate change scenarios, with consequent effects on ecological goods and services. A field manipulative experiment was conducted to examine the responses of gross ecosystem productivity (GEP), net ecosystem carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange (NEE), ecosystem respiration (ER), and soil respiration (SR) to locust outbreaks in a temperate steppe of northern China from 2010 to 2011. Two processes related to locust outbreaks, natural locust feeding and carcass deposition, were mimicked by clipping 80 % of aboveground biomass and adding locust carcasses, respectively. Ecosystem carbon (C) exchange (i.e., GEP, NEE, ER, and SR) was suppressed by locust feeding in 2010, but stimulated by locust carcass deposition in both years (except SR in 2011). Experimental locust outbreaks (i.e., clipping plus locust carcass addition) decreased GEP and NEE in 2010 whereas they increased GEP, NEE, and ER in 2011, leading to neutral changes in GEP, NEE, and SR across the 2 years. The responses of ecosystem C exchange could have been due to the changes in soil ammonium nitrogen, community cover, and aboveground net primary productivity. Our findings of the transient and neutral changes in ecosystem C cycling under locust outbreaks highlight the importance of resistance, resilience, and stability of the temperate steppe in maintaining reliable ecosystem services, and facilitate the projections of ecosystem functioning in response to natural disturbance and climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Song
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, College of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, Henan, China
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Gossner MM, Pašalić E, Lange M, Lange P, Boch S, Hessenmöller D, Müller J, Socher SA, Fischer M, Schulze ED, Weisser WW. Differential responses of herbivores and herbivory to management in temperate European beech. PLoS One 2014; 9:e104876. [PMID: 25119984 PMCID: PMC4132021 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Forest management not only affects biodiversity but also might alter ecosystem processes mediated by the organisms, i.e. herbivory the removal of plant biomass by plant-eating insects and other arthropod groups. Aiming at revealing general relationships between forest management and herbivory we investigated aboveground arthropod herbivory in 105 plots dominated by European beech in three different regions in Germany in the sun-exposed canopy of mature beech trees and on beech saplings in the understorey. We separately assessed damage by different guilds of herbivores, i.e. chewing, sucking and scraping herbivores, gall-forming insects and mites, and leaf-mining insects. We asked whether herbivory differs among different forest management regimes (unmanaged, uneven-aged managed, even-aged managed) and among age-classes within even-aged forests. We further tested for consistency of relationships between regions, strata and herbivore guilds. On average, almost 80% of beech leaves showed herbivory damage, and about 6% of leaf area was consumed. Chewing damage was most common, whereas leaf sucking and scraping damage were very rare. Damage was generally greater in the canopy than in the understorey, in particular for chewing and scraping damage, and the occurrence of mines. There was little difference in herbivory among differently managed forests and the effects of management on damage differed among regions, strata and damage types. Covariates such as wood volume, tree density and plant diversity weakly influenced herbivory, and effects differed between herbivory types. We conclude that despite of the relatively low number of species attacking beech; arthropod herbivory on beech is generally high. We further conclude that responses of herbivory to forest management are multifaceted and environmental factors such as forest structure variables affecting in particular microclimatic conditions are more likely to explain the variability in herbivory among beech forest plots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin M. Gossner
- Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Institute of Ecology, Jena, Germany
- Technische Universität München, Terrestrial Ecology Research Group, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Center for Food and Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
| | - Esther Pašalić
- Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Institute of Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Markus Lange
- Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Institute of Ecology, Jena, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany
| | - Patricia Lange
- Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Institute of Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Steffen Boch
- University of Bern, Institute of Plant Sciences, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Jörg Müller
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam, Germany
| | | | - Markus Fischer
- University of Bern, Institute of Plant Sciences, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Wolfgang W. Weisser
- Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Institute of Ecology, Jena, Germany
- Technische Universität München, Terrestrial Ecology Research Group, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Center for Food and Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
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Yang LH, Gratton C. Insects as drivers of ecosystem processes. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 2:26-32. [PMID: 32846721 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Insects and other small invertebrates are ubiquitous components of all terrestrial and freshwater food webs, but their cumulative biomass is small relative to plants and microbes. As a result, it is often assumed that these animals make relatively minor contributions to ecosystem processes. Despite their small sizes and cumulative biomass, we suggest that these animals may commonly have important effects on carbon and nutrient cycling by modulating the quality and quantity of resources that enter the detrital food web, with consequences at the ecosystem level. These effects can occur through multiple pathways, including direct inputs of insect biomass, the transformation of detrital biomass, and the indirect effects of predators on herbivores and detritivores. In virtually all cases, the ecosystem effects of these pathways are ultimately mediated through interactions with plants and soil microbes. Merging our understanding of insect, plant and microbial ecology will offer a valuable way to better integrate community-level interactions with ecosystem processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louie H Yang
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, CA, United States.
| | - Claudio Gratton
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
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Metcalfe DB, Asner GP, Martin RE, Silva Espejo JE, Huasco WH, Farfán Amézquita FF, Carranza-Jimenez L, Galiano Cabrera DF, Baca LD, Sinca F, Huaraca Quispe LP, Taype IA, Mora LE, Dávila AR, Solórzano MM, Puma Vilca BL, Laupa Román JM, Guerra Bustios PC, Revilla NS, Tupayachi R, Girardin CAJ, Doughty CE, Malhi Y. Herbivory makes major contributions to ecosystem carbon and nutrient cycling in tropical forests. Ecol Lett 2013; 17:324-32. [PMID: 24372865 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The functional role of herbivores in tropical rainforests remains poorly understood. We quantified the magnitude of, and underlying controls on, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycled by invertebrate herbivory along a 2800 m elevational gradient in the tropical Andes spanning 12°C mean annual temperature. We find, firstly, that leaf area loss is greater at warmer sites with lower foliar phosphorus, and secondly, that the estimated herbivore-mediated flux of foliar nitrogen and phosphorus from plants to soil via leaf area loss is similar to, or greater than, other major sources of these nutrients in tropical forests. Finally, we estimate that herbivores consume a significant portion of plant carbon, potentially causing major shifts in the pattern of plant and soil carbon cycling. We conclude that future shifts in herbivore abundance and activity as a result of environmental change could have major impacts on soil fertility and ecosystem carbon sequestration in tropical forests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Metcalfe
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skogsmarksgränd, Umeå, SE-901 83, Sweden
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Clay NA, Lucas J, Kaspari M, Kay AD. Manna from heaven: Refuse from an arboreal ant links aboveground and belowground processes in a lowland tropical forest. Ecosphere 2013. [DOI: 10.1890/es13-00220.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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11
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Classen AT, Chapman SK, Whitham TG, Hart SC, Koch GW. Long-term insect herbivory slows soil development in an arid ecosystem. Ecosphere 2013. [DOI: 10.1890/es12-00411.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Lowman MD, Schowalter TD. Plant science in forest canopies--the first 30 years of advances and challenges (1980-2010). THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 194:12-27. [PMID: 22348430 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04076.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
As an emerging subdiscipline of forest biology, canopy science has undergone a transition from observational, 'oh-wow' exploration to a more hypothesis-driven, experimental arena for rigorous field biology. Although efforts to explore forest canopies have occurred for a century, the new tools to access the treetops during the past 30 yr facilitated not only widespread exploration but also new discoveries about the complexity and global effects of this so-called 'eighth continent of the planet'. The forest canopy is the engine that fixes solar energy in carbohydrates to power interactions among forest components that, in turn, affect regional and global climate, biogeochemical cycling and ecosystem services. Climate change, biodiversity conservation, fresh water conservation, ecosystem productivity, and carbon sequestration represent important components of forest research that benefit from access to the canopy for rigorous study. Although some canopy variables can be observed or measured from the ground, vertical and horizontal variation in environmental conditions and processes within the canopy that determine canopy-atmosphere and canopy-forest floor interactions are best measured within the canopy. Canopy science has matured into a cutting-edge subset of forest research, and the treetops also serve as social and economic drivers for sustainable communities, fostering science education and ecotourism. This interdisciplinary context of forest canopy science has inspired innovative new approaches to environmental stewardship, involving diverse stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret D Lowman
- Nature Research Center, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
- Mathematical and Physical Sciences, NC State University, Raleigh, NC 27603, USA
| | - Timothy D Schowalter
- Department of Entomology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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Frost CJ, Dean JM, Smyers EC, Mescher MC, Carlson JE, De Moraes CM, Tooker JF. A petiole-galling insect herbivore decelerates leaf lamina litter decomposition rates. Funct Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2012.01986.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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14
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Positive and negative impacts of insect frass quality on soil nitrogen availability and plant growth. POPUL ECOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10144-011-0281-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Schowalter TD, Fonte SJ, Geaghan J, Wang J. Effects of manipulated herbivore inputs on nutrient flux and decomposition in a tropical rainforest in Puerto Rico. Oecologia 2011; 167:1141-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-011-2056-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Induced chemical defenses in a freshwater macrophyte suppress herbivore fitness and the growth of associated microbes. Oecologia 2010; 165:427-36. [PMID: 20927537 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-010-1791-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The freshwater macrophyte Cabomba caroliniana induces a chemical defense when attacked by either the crayfish Procambrus clarkii or the snail Pomacea canaliculata. Induction by either consumer lowers the palatability of the plant to both consumers. When offered food ad libitum, snails feeding on non-induced C. caroliniana grew 2.6-2.7 times more than those feeding on induced C. caroliniana. Because snails fed less on induced plants, this could be a behavioral effect (reduced feeding), a physiological effect of the induced metabolites on the consumer, or both. To assess these possibilities, we made artificial diets with lipid extracts of induced versus non-induced C. caroliniana and restricted control snails to consuming only as much as treatment snails consumed. Growth measured as shell diameter was significantly lower on the diet containing extract from induced, as opposed to non-induced, plants; change in snail mass was more variable and showed a similar, but non-significant, trend. Thus, snails may reduce feeding on induced plants to avoid suppression of fitness. The induced defenses also suppressed growth of co-occurring microbes that might attack the plant through herbivore-generated feeding scars. When two bacteria and three fungi isolated from C. caroliniana surfaces were cultured with the lipid extract from induced and non-induced C. caroliniana, both extracts inhibited the microbes, but the induced extract was more potent against three of the five potential pathogens. Thus, induced plant defenses can act against both direct consumers and microbes that might invade the plant indirectly through herbivore-generated wounds.
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Long-term dynamics of tropical walking sticks in response to multiple large-scale and intense disturbances. Oecologia 2010; 165:357-68. [PMID: 20677015 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-010-1737-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the effects of disturbance and secondary succession on spatio-temporal patterns in the abundance of species is stymied by a lack of long-term demographic data, especially in response to infrequent and high intensity disturbances, such as hurricanes. Moreover, resistance and resilience to hurricane-induced disturbance may be mediated by legacies of previous land use, although such interactive effects are poorly understood, especially in tropical environments. We address these central issues in disturbance ecology by analyzing an extensive dataset, spanning the impacts of Hurricanes Hugo and Georges, on the abundance of a Neotropical walking stick, Lamponius portoricensis, in tabonuco rainforest of Puerto Rico during the wet and dry seasons from 1991 to 2007. By synthesizing data from two proximate sites in tabonuco forest, we show that resistance to Hurricane Hugo (97% reduction in abundance) was much less than resistance to Hurricane Georges (21% reduction in abundance). Based on a powerful statistical approach (generalized linear mixed-effects models with Poisson error terms), we documented that the temporal trajectories of abundance during secondary succession (i.e., patterns of resilience) differed between hurricanes and among historical land use categories, but that the effects of hurricanes and land use histories were independent of each other. These complex results likely arise because of differences in the intensities of the two hurricanes with respect to microclimatic effects (temperature and moisture) in the forest understory, as well as to time-lags in the response of L. portoricensis to changes in the abundance and distribution of preferred food plants (Piper) in post-hurricane environments.
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Bastow JL, Preisser EL, Strong DR. Wood Decomposition Following a Perennial Lupine Die-Off: A 3-Year Litterbag Study. Ecosystems 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-008-9132-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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