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Fulé PZ, Sánchez Meador AJ, Moore MM, Covington WW, Kolb TE, Huffman DW, Normandin DP, Roccaforte JP. Forest restoration treatments increased growth and did not change survival of ponderosa pines in severe drought, Arizona. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2022; 32:e2717. [PMID: 36184740 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We report on survival and growth of ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex P. Lawson & C. Lawson) 2 decades after forest restoration treatments in the G. A. Pearson Natural Area, northern Arizona. Despite protection from harvest that conserved old trees, a dense forest susceptible to uncharacteristically severe disturbance had developed during more than a century of exclusion of the previous frequent surface-fire regime that ceased upon Euro-American settlement in approximately 1876. Trees were thinned in 1993 to emulate prefire-exclusion forest conditions, accumulated forest floor was removed, and surface fire was re-introduced at 4-years intervals (full restoration). There was also a partial restoration treatment consisting of thinning alone. Compared with untreated controls, mortality of old trees (mean age 243 years, maximum 462 years) differed by <1 tree ha-1 and old-tree survival was statistically indistinguishable between treatments (90.5% control, 92.3% full, 82.6% partial). Post-treatment growth as measured by basal area increment of both old (pre-1876) and young (post-1876) pines was significantly higher in both treatments than counterpart control trees for more than 2 decades following thinning. Drought meeting the definition of megadrought affected the region almost all the time since the onset of the experiment, including 3 years that were severely dry. Growth of all trees declined in the driest 3 years, but old and young treated trees had significantly less decline. Association of tree growth with temperature (negative correlation) and precipitation (positive correlation) was much weaker in treated trees, indicating that they may experience less growth decline from warmer, drier conditions predicted in future decades. Overall, tree responses after the first 2 decades following treatment suggest that forest restoration treatments have led to substantial, sustained improvement in the growth of old and young ponderosa pines without affecting old-tree survival, thereby improving resilience to a warming climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Z Fulé
- School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Andrew J Sánchez Meador
- School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Margaret M Moore
- School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - W Wallace Covington
- School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Thomas E Kolb
- School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - David W Huffman
- Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Donald P Normandin
- Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - John Paul Roccaforte
- Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
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Piovesan G, Biondi F. On tree longevity. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 231:1318-1337. [PMID: 33305422 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Large, majestic trees are iconic symbols of great age among living organisms. Published evidence suggests that trees do not die because of genetically programmed senescence in their meristems, but rather are killed by an external agent or a disturbance event. Long tree lifespans are therefore allowed by specific combinations of life history traits within realized niches that support resistance to, or avoidance of, extrinsic mortality. Another requirement for trees to achieve their maximum longevity is either sustained growth over extended periods of time or at least the capacity to increase their growth rates when conditions allow it. The growth plasticity and modularity of trees can then be viewed as an evolutionary advantage that allows them to survive and reproduce for centuries and millennia. As more and more scientific information is systematically collected on tree ages under various ecological settings, it is becoming clear that tree longevity is a key trait for global syntheses of life history strategies, especially in connection with disturbance regimes and their possible future modifications. In addition, we challenge the long-held notion that shade-tolerant, late-successional species have longer lifespans than early-successional species by pointing out that tree species with extreme longevity do not fit this paradigm. Identifying extremely old trees is therefore the groundwork not only for protecting and/or restoring entire landscapes, but also to revisit and update classic ecological theories that shape our understanding of environmental change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Piovesan
- Dendrology Lab, Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Viterbo, 01100, Italy
| | - Franco Biondi
- DendroLab, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, 89557, USA
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3
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Boyd MA, Berner LT, Foster AC, Goetz SJ, Rogers BM, Walker XJ, Mack MC. Historic declines in growth portend trembling aspen death during a contemporary leaf miner outbreak in Alaska. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A. Boyd
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society and Department of Biological Sciences Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Arizona86011USA
| | - Logan T. Berner
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Arizona86011USA
| | - Adrianna C. Foster
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Arizona86011USA
| | - Scott J. Goetz
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Arizona86011USA
| | - Brendan M. Rogers
- Woodwell Climate Research Center Falmouth Massachusetts02540‐1644USA
| | - Xanthe J. Walker
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society and Department of Biological Sciences Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Arizona86011USA
| | - Michelle C. Mack
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society and Department of Biological Sciences Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Arizona86011USA
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4
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Walker AP, De Kauwe MG, Bastos A, Belmecheri S, Georgiou K, Keeling RF, McMahon SM, Medlyn BE, Moore DJP, Norby RJ, Zaehle S, Anderson-Teixeira KJ, Battipaglia G, Brienen RJW, Cabugao KG, Cailleret M, Campbell E, Canadell JG, Ciais P, Craig ME, Ellsworth DS, Farquhar GD, Fatichi S, Fisher JB, Frank DC, Graven H, Gu L, Haverd V, Heilman K, Heimann M, Hungate BA, Iversen CM, Joos F, Jiang M, Keenan TF, Knauer J, Körner C, Leshyk VO, Leuzinger S, Liu Y, MacBean N, Malhi Y, McVicar TR, Penuelas J, Pongratz J, Powell AS, Riutta T, Sabot MEB, Schleucher J, Sitch S, Smith WK, Sulman B, Taylor B, Terrer C, Torn MS, Treseder KK, Trugman AT, Trumbore SE, van Mantgem PJ, Voelker SL, Whelan ME, Zuidema PA. Integrating the evidence for a terrestrial carbon sink caused by increasing atmospheric CO 2. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 229:2413-2445. [PMID: 32789857 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration ([CO2 ]) is increasing, which increases leaf-scale photosynthesis and intrinsic water-use efficiency. These direct responses have the potential to increase plant growth, vegetation biomass, and soil organic matter; transferring carbon from the atmosphere into terrestrial ecosystems (a carbon sink). A substantial global terrestrial carbon sink would slow the rate of [CO2 ] increase and thus climate change. However, ecosystem CO2 responses are complex or confounded by concurrent changes in multiple agents of global change and evidence for a [CO2 ]-driven terrestrial carbon sink can appear contradictory. Here we synthesize theory and broad, multidisciplinary evidence for the effects of increasing [CO2 ] (iCO2 ) on the global terrestrial carbon sink. Evidence suggests a substantial increase in global photosynthesis since pre-industrial times. Established theory, supported by experiments, indicates that iCO2 is likely responsible for about half of the increase. Global carbon budgeting, atmospheric data, and forest inventories indicate a historical carbon sink, and these apparent iCO2 responses are high in comparison to experiments and predictions from theory. Plant mortality and soil carbon iCO2 responses are highly uncertain. In conclusion, a range of evidence supports a positive terrestrial carbon sink in response to iCO2 , albeit with uncertain magnitude and strong suggestion of a role for additional agents of global change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony P Walker
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Martin G De Kauwe
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Climate Change Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Ana Bastos
- Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Luisenstr. 37, Munich, 80333, Germany
| | - Soumaya Belmecheri
- Laboratory of Tree Ring Research, University of Arizona, 1215 E Lowell St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Katerina Georgiou
- Department of Earth System Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Ralph F Keeling
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Sean M McMahon
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, 21037, USA
| | - Belinda E Medlyn
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - David J P Moore
- School of Natural Resources and the Environment, 1064 East Lowell Street, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Richard J Norby
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Sönke Zaehle
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Str. 10, Jena, 07745, Germany
| | - Kristina J Anderson-Teixeira
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, MRC 5535, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
- Center for Tropical Forest Science-Forest Global Earth Observatory, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Giovanna Battipaglia
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, Università della Campania, Caserta, 81100, Italy
| | | | - Kristine G Cabugao
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Maxime Cailleret
- INRAE, UMR RECOVER, Aix-Marseille Université, 3275 route de Cézanne, Aix-en-Provence Cedex 5, 13182, France
- Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
| | - Elliott Campbell
- Department of Geography, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Josep G Canadell
- CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Philippe Ciais
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, LSCE/IPSL, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, F-91191, France
| | - Matthew E Craig
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - David S Ellsworth
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - Graham D Farquhar
- Plant Sciences, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Simone Fatichi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore, 117576, Singapore
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich, Stefano-Franscini Platz 5, Zurich, 8093, Switzerland
| | - Joshua B Fisher
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA
| | - David C Frank
- Laboratory of Tree Ring Research, University of Arizona, 1215 E Lowell St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Heather Graven
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Lianhong Gu
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Vanessa Haverd
- CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Kelly Heilman
- Laboratory of Tree Ring Research, University of Arizona, 1215 E Lowell St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Martin Heimann
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Str. 10, Jena, 07745, Germany
| | - Bruce A Hungate
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
| | - Colleen M Iversen
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Fortunat Joos
- Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute and Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, Sidlerstr. 5, Bern, CH-3012, Switzerland
| | - Mingkai Jiang
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - Trevor F Keenan
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Earth and Environmental Sciences Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab., Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Jürgen Knauer
- CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Christian Körner
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Botany, University of Basel, Basel, 4056, Switzerland
| | - Victor O Leshyk
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
| | - Sebastian Leuzinger
- School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Yao Liu
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Natasha MacBean
- Department of Geography, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Yadvinder Malhi
- School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK
| | - Tim R McVicar
- CSIRO Land and Water, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes, 142 Mills Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Josep Penuelas
- CSIC, Global Ecology CREAF-CSIC-UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, 08193, Spain
- CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Catalonia, 08193, Spain
| | - Julia Pongratz
- Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Luisenstr. 37, Munich, 80333, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstr. 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - A Shafer Powell
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Terhi Riutta
- School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK
| | - Manon E B Sabot
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Climate Change Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Juergen Schleucher
- Department of Medical Biochemistry & Biophysics, Umeå University, Umea, 901 87, Sweden
| | - Stephen Sitch
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, Laver Building, EX4 4QF, UK
| | - William K Smith
- School of Natural Resources and the Environment, 1064 East Lowell Street, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Benjamin Sulman
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Benton Taylor
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, 21037, USA
| | - César Terrer
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - Margaret S Torn
- Earth and Environmental Sciences Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab., Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Kathleen K Treseder
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Anna T Trugman
- Department of Geography, 1832 Ellison Hall, Santa Barbara, CA, 93016, USA
| | - Susan E Trumbore
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Str. 10, Jena, 07745, Germany
| | | | - Steve L Voelker
- Department of Environmental and Forest Biology, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Mary E Whelan
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, 14 College Farm Road, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Pieter A Zuidema
- Forest Ecology and Forest Management group, Wageningen University, PO Box 47, Wageningen, 6700 AA, the Netherlands
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5
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Brienen RJW, Caldwell L, Duchesne L, Voelker S, Barichivich J, Baliva M, Ceccantini G, Di Filippo A, Helama S, Locosselli GM, Lopez L, Piovesan G, Schöngart J, Villalba R, Gloor E. Forest carbon sink neutralized by pervasive growth-lifespan trade-offs. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4241. [PMID: 32901006 PMCID: PMC7479146 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17966-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Land vegetation is currently taking up large amounts of atmospheric CO2, possibly due to tree growth stimulation. Extant models predict that this growth stimulation will continue to cause a net carbon uptake this century. However, there are indications that increased growth rates may shorten trees' lifespan and thus recent increases in forest carbon stocks may be transient due to lagged increases in mortality. Here we show that growth-lifespan trade-offs are indeed near universal, occurring across almost all species and climates. This trade-off is directly linked to faster growth reducing tree lifespan, and not due to covariance with climate or environment. Thus, current tree growth stimulation will, inevitably, result in a lagged increase in canopy tree mortality, as is indeed widely observed, and eventually neutralise carbon gains due to growth stimulation. Results from a strongly data-based forest simulator confirm these expectations. Extant Earth system model projections of global forest carbon sink persistence are likely too optimistic, increasing the need to curb greenhouse gas emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J W Brienen
- School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - L Caldwell
- School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - L Duchesne
- Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs, Direction de la recherche forestière, 2700 Einstein Street, Quebec, QC, G1P 3W8, Canada
| | - S Voelker
- Department of Environmental and Forest Biology, SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
| | - J Barichivich
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, IPSL, CNRS/CEA/UVSQ, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, France.,Instituto de Geografía, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - M Baliva
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, 01100, Viterbo, Via SC de Lellis, Italy
| | - G Ceccantini
- University of São Paulo, Institute of Biosciences, Department of Botany, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP, 05508-090, Brazil
| | - A Di Filippo
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, 01100, Viterbo, Via SC de Lellis, Italy
| | - S Helama
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, Ounasjoentie 6, 96200, Rovaniemi, Finland
| | - G M Locosselli
- University of São Paulo, Institute of Biosciences, Department of Botany, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP, 05508-090, Brazil
| | - L Lopez
- Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA), CONICET-Mendoza, C.C. 330, (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - G Piovesan
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, 01100, Viterbo, Via SC de Lellis, Italy
| | - J Schöngart
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Da Amazônia (INPA), Coordenação de Dinâmica Ambiental (CODAM), Av. André Araújo 2936, 69067-375, Manaus, Brazil
| | - R Villalba
- Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA), CONICET-Mendoza, C.C. 330, (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - E Gloor
- School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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Abstract
The American quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) and its close relative, the Eurasian quaking aspen (Populus tremula L.), cover a realm that is perhaps the most expansive of all tree species in the world. In North America, sudden aspen decline (SAD) is a growing concern that marks the rapid decline of quaking aspen trees leading to mortality at the stand and landscape scale. Research suggests that drought and water stress are the primary causes of SAD. Predisposing factors (age, structure, and landscape position), as well as associated stressors (i.e., pests and pathogens), have been linked to mortality in affected stands. The conflation of multiple interacting factors across the aspen’s broad geographic range in North America has produced significant debate over the classification of SAD as a disease and the proper management of affected stands. Interestingly, no such effects have been reported for the Eurasian aspen. We here review and synthesize the growing body of literature for North America and suggest that SAD is a novel decline disease resulting from multiple inciting and interacting factors related to climate, land-use history, and successional dynamics. We suggest that the range of aspen observed at the onset of the 21st Century was bolstered by a wet period in western North America that coincided with widespread regional cutting and clearing of late-successional forests for timber and grazing. No comparable land-use history, successional status, or age-class structure is apparent or linked for Eurasian forests. Eurasian aspen is either absent or young in managed forests, or old and decadent in parks in Fenno-Scandinavia, or it grows more intimately with a more diverse mixture of tree species that have arisen from a longer period of frequent timber cutting in Russia. Based on these insights we provide recommendations for practical management techniques that can promote stand resilience and recovery across a range of stand conditions in North America. Managers should attempt to identify SAD-prone stands using the presence of predisposing conditions and focus treatments such as coppice or prescribed fire on stands with suitable topographies, elevations, and climates. We conclude that SAD will persist throughout the coming decades, given the enormity of past cutting history, fire exclusion, and current changes in climate until a more active restoration agenda is implemented.
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7
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Ferrenberg S, Langenhan JM, Loskot SA, Rozal LM, Mitton JB. Resin monoterpene defenses decline within three widespread species of pine (Pinus) along a 1530-m elevational gradient. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Scott Ferrenberg
- Department of Biology; New Mexico State University; Las Cruces New Mexico 88003 USA
| | | | - Steven A. Loskot
- Department of Chemistry; Seattle University; Seattle Washington 98122 USA
| | - Leonardo M. Rozal
- Department of Chemistry; Seattle University; Seattle Washington 98122 USA
| | - Jeffry B. Mitton
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado 80309 USA
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8
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Cailleret M, Jansen S, Robert EMR, Desoto L, Aakala T, Antos JA, Beikircher B, Bigler C, Bugmann H, Caccianiga M, Čada V, Camarero JJ, Cherubini P, Cochard H, Coyea MR, Čufar K, Das AJ, Davi H, Delzon S, Dorman M, Gea-Izquierdo G, Gillner S, Haavik LJ, Hartmann H, Hereş AM, Hultine KR, Janda P, Kane JM, Kharuk VI, Kitzberger T, Klein T, Kramer K, Lens F, Levanic T, Linares Calderon JC, Lloret F, Lobo-Do-Vale R, Lombardi F, López Rodríguez R, Mäkinen H, Mayr S, Mészáros I, Metsaranta JM, Minunno F, Oberhuber W, Papadopoulos A, Peltoniemi M, Petritan AM, Rohner B, Sangüesa-Barreda G, Sarris D, Smith JM, Stan AB, Sterck F, Stojanović DB, Suarez ML, Svoboda M, Tognetti R, Torres-Ruiz JM, Trotsiuk V, Villalba R, Vodde F, Westwood AR, Wyckoff PH, Zafirov N, Martínez-Vilalta J. A synthesis of radial growth patterns preceding tree mortality. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2017; 23:1675-1690. [PMID: 27759919 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Tree mortality is a key factor influencing forest functions and dynamics, but our understanding of the mechanisms leading to mortality and the associated changes in tree growth rates are still limited. We compiled a new pan-continental tree-ring width database from sites where both dead and living trees were sampled (2970 dead and 4224 living trees from 190 sites, including 36 species), and compared early and recent growth rates between trees that died and those that survived a given mortality event. We observed a decrease in radial growth before death in ca. 84% of the mortality events. The extent and duration of these reductions were highly variable (1-100 years in 96% of events) due to the complex interactions among study species and the source(s) of mortality. Strong and long-lasting declines were found for gymnosperms, shade- and drought-tolerant species, and trees that died from competition. Angiosperms and trees that died due to biotic attacks (especially bark-beetles) typically showed relatively small and short-term growth reductions. Our analysis did not highlight any universal trade-off between early growth and tree longevity within a species, although this result may also reflect high variability in sampling design among sites. The intersite and interspecific variability in growth patterns before mortality provides valuable information on the nature of the mortality process, which is consistent with our understanding of the physiological mechanisms leading to mortality. Abrupt changes in growth immediately before death can be associated with generalized hydraulic failure and/or bark-beetle attack, while long-term decrease in growth may be associated with a gradual decline in hydraulic performance coupled with depletion in carbon reserves. Our results imply that growth-based mortality algorithms may be a powerful tool for predicting gymnosperm mortality induced by chronic stress, but not necessarily so for angiosperms and in case of intense drought or bark-beetle outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Cailleret
- Forest Ecology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, ETH Zürich, Universitätstrasse 22, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Steven Jansen
- Institute of Systematic Botany and Ecology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Elisabeth M R Robert
- CREAF, Campus UAB, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
- Laboratory of Plant Biology and Nature Management (APNA), Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050, Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Wood Biology and Xylarium, Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA), Leuvensesteenweg 13, 3080, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Lucía Desoto
- Department of Life Sciences, Centre for Functional Ecology, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Tuomas Aakala
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Joseph A Antos
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, PO Box 3020, STN CSC, Victoria, BC, V8W 3N5, Canada
| | - Barbara Beikircher
- Institute of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestrasse 15, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christof Bigler
- Forest Ecology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, ETH Zürich, Universitätstrasse 22, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Harald Bugmann
- Forest Ecology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, ETH Zürich, Universitätstrasse 22, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marco Caccianiga
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Giovanni Celoria 26, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Vojtěch Čada
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 961/129, 165 21, Praha 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Jesus J Camarero
- Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología (IPE-CSIC), Avenida Montañana 1005, 50192, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Paolo Cherubini
- Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research - WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
| | - Hervé Cochard
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 547 PIAF, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Université Clermont Auvergne, 63100, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Marie R Coyea
- Département des sciences du bois et de la forêt, Centre for Forest Research, Faculté de foresterie, de géographie et de géomatique, Université Laval, 2405 rue de la Terrasse, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Katarina Čufar
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Adrian J Das
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, 47050 Generals Highway, Three Rivers, CA, 93271, USA
| | - Hendrik Davi
- Ecologie des Forest Méditerranéennes (URFM), Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Domaine Saint Paul, Site Agroparc, 84914, Avignon Cedex 9, France
| | - Sylvain Delzon
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 1202 BIOGECO, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Université de Bordeaux, 33615, Pessac, France
| | - Michael Dorman
- Department of Geography and Environmental Development, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 84105, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Guillermo Gea-Izquierdo
- Centro de Investigación Forestal (CIFOR), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Carretera La Coruña km 7.5, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sten Gillner
- Institute of Forest Botany and Forest Zoology, TU Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany
- Fachgebiet Vegetationstechnik und Pflanzenverwendung, Institut für Landschaftsarchitektur und Umweltplanung, TU Berlin, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laurel J Haavik
- Department of Entomology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, 1450 Jayhawk Boulevard, Lawrence, KS, 66045, USA
| | - Henrik Hartmann
- Max-Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans Knöll Strasse 10, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Ana-Maria Hereş
- CREAF, Campus UAB, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, National Museum of Natural History (MNCN), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), C/Serrano 115bis, 28006, Madrid, Spain
| | - Kevin R Hultine
- Department of Research, Conservation and Collections, Desert Botanical Garden, 1201 N Galvin Parkway, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Pavel Janda
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 961/129, 165 21, Praha 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Jeffrey M Kane
- Department of Forestry and Wildland Resources, Humboldt State University, 1 Harpst Street, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Vyacheslav I Kharuk
- Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Sukachev Institute of Forest, Krasnoyarsk, 660036, Russia
| | - Thomas Kitzberger
- Department of Ecology, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral S/N, Barrio Jardín Botánico, 8400, San Carlos de Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina
- Instituto de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad y Medio Ambiente (INIBOMA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Quintral 1250, 8400, San Carlos de Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina
| | - Tamir Klein
- Institute of Soil, Water, and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), PO Box 6, 50250, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Koen Kramer
- Alterra - Green World Research, Wageningen University, Droevendaalse steeg 1, 6700AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Frederic Lens
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden University, PO Box 9517, 2300RA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Tom Levanic
- Department of Yield and Silviculture, Slovenian Forestry Institute, Večna pot 2, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Juan C Linares Calderon
- Department of Physical, Chemical and Natural Systems, Pablo de Olavide University, Carretera de Utrera km 1, 41013, Seville, Spain
| | - Francisco Lloret
- CREAF, Campus UAB, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Raquel Lobo-Do-Vale
- Forest Research Centre, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Fabio Lombardi
- Department of Agricultural Science, Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria, loc. Feo di Vito, 89060, Reggio Calabria, Italy
| | - Rosana López Rodríguez
- Forest Genetics and Physiology Research Group, Technical University of Madrid, Calle Ramiro de Maeztu 7, 28040, Madrid, Spain
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Science Road, Richmond, NSW, 2753, Australia
| | - Harri Mäkinen
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Viikinkaari 4, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Stefan Mayr
- Institute of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestrasse 15, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ilona Mészáros
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Juha M Metsaranta
- Northern Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 5320-122nd Street, Edmonton, AB, T6H 3S5, Canada
| | - Francesco Minunno
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Walter Oberhuber
- Institute of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestrasse 15, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Andreas Papadopoulos
- Department of Forestry and Natural Environment Management, Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Stereas Elladas, Ag Georgiou 1, 36100, Karpenissi, Greece
| | - Mikko Peltoniemi
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), PO Box 18 (Jokiniemenkuja 1), 01301, Vantaa, Finland
| | - Any M Petritan
- Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research - WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
- National Institute for Research-Development in Forestry ''Marin Dracea'', Eroilor 128, 077190, Voluntari, Romania
| | - Brigitte Rohner
- Forest Ecology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, ETH Zürich, Universitätstrasse 22, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
- Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research - WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
| | | | - Dimitrios Sarris
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Open University of Cyprus, Latsia, 2252, Nicosia, Cyprus
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, 1678, Nicosia, Cyprus
- Division of Plant Biology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, 26500, Patras, Greece
| | - Jeremy M Smith
- Department of Geography, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309-0260, USA
| | - Amanda B Stan
- Department of Geography, Planning and Recreation, Northern Arizona University, PO Box 15016, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
| | - Frank Sterck
- Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3a, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dejan B Stojanović
- Institute of Lowland Forestry and Environment, University of Novi Sad, Antona Cehova 13, PO Box 117, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Maria L Suarez
- Instituto de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad y Medio Ambiente (INIBOMA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Quintral 1250, 8400, San Carlos de Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina
| | - Miroslav Svoboda
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 961/129, 165 21, Praha 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Roberto Tognetti
- Dipartimenti di Bioscienze e Territorio, Università del Molise, C. da Fonte Lappone, 86090, Pesche, Italy
- European Forest Institute (EFI) Project Centre on Mountain Forests (MOUNTFOR), Via E. Mach 1, 38010, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - José M Torres-Ruiz
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 1202 BIOGECO, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Université de Bordeaux, 33615, Pessac, France
| | - Volodymyr Trotsiuk
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 961/129, 165 21, Praha 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Ricardo Villalba
- Laboratorio de Dendrocronología e Historia Ambiental, Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA), CCT CONICET Mendoza, Av. Ruiz Leal s/n, Parque General San Martín, Mendoza, CP 5500, Argentina
| | - Floor Vodde
- Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51014, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Alana R Westwood
- Boreal Avian Modelling Project, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, 751 General Services Building, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H1, Canada
| | - Peter H Wyckoff
- University of Minnesota, 600 East 4th Street, Morris, MN, 56267, USA
| | - Nikolay Zafirov
- University of Forestry, Kliment Ohridski Street 10, 1756, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Jordi Martínez-Vilalta
- CREAF, Campus UAB, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
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Colangelo M, Camarero JJ, Borghetti M, Gazol A, Gentilesca T, Ripullone F. Size Matters a Lot: Drought-Affected Italian Oaks Are Smaller and Show Lower Growth Prior to Tree Death. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:135. [PMID: 28270816 PMCID: PMC5318376 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Hydraulic theory suggests that tall trees are at greater risk of drought-triggered death caused by hydraulic failure than small trees. In addition the drop in growth, observed in several tree species prior to death, is often interpreted as an early-warning signal of impending death. We test these hypotheses by comparing size, growth, and wood-anatomy patterns of living and now-dead trees in two Italian oak forests showing recent mortality episodes. The mortality probability of trees is modeled as a function of recent growth and tree size. Drift-diffusion-jump (DDJ) metrics are used to detect early-warning signals. We found that the tallest trees of the anisohydric Italian oak better survived drought contrary to what was predicted by the theory. Dead trees were characterized by a lower height and radial-growth trend than living trees in both study sites. The growth reduction of now-dead trees started about 10 years prior to their death and after two severe spring droughts during the early 2000s. This critical transition in growth was detected by DDJ metrics in the most affected site. Dead trees were also more sensitive to drought stress in this site indicating different susceptibility to water shortage between trees. Dead trees did not form earlywood vessels with smaller lumen diameter than surviving trees but tended to form wider latewood vessels with a higher percentage of vessel area. Since living and dead trees showed similar competition we did not expect that moderate thinning and a reduction in tree density would increase the short-term survival probability of trees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Colangelo
- School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental Sciences, University of BasilicataPotenza, Italy
| | - Jesús J. Camarero
- Pyrenean Institute of Ecology – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientíficasZaragoza, Spain
| | - Marco Borghetti
- School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental Sciences, University of BasilicataPotenza, Italy
| | - Antonio Gazol
- Pyrenean Institute of Ecology – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientíficasZaragoza, Spain
| | - Tiziana Gentilesca
- School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental Sciences, University of BasilicataPotenza, Italy
| | - Francesco Ripullone
- School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental Sciences, University of BasilicataPotenza, Italy
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10
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Bigler C. Trade-Offs between Growth Rate, Tree Size and Lifespan of Mountain Pine (Pinus montana) in the Swiss National Park. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150402. [PMID: 26930294 PMCID: PMC4773076 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A within-species trade-off between growth rates and lifespan has been observed across different taxa of trees, however, there is some uncertainty whether this trade-off also applies to shade-intolerant tree species. The main objective of this study was to investigate the relationships between radial growth, tree size and lifespan of shade-intolerant mountain pines. For 200 dead standing mountain pines (Pinus montana) located along gradients of aspect, slope steepness and elevation in the Swiss National Park, radial annual growth rates and lifespan were reconstructed. While early growth (i.e. mean tree-ring width over the first 50 years) correlated positively with diameter at the time of tree death, a negative correlation resulted with lifespan, i.e. rapidly growing mountain pines face a trade-off between reaching a large diameter at the cost of early tree death. Slowly growing mountain pines may reach a large diameter and a long lifespan, but risk to die young at a small size. Early growth was not correlated with temperature or precipitation over the growing period. Variability in lifespan was further contingent on aspect, slope steepness and elevation. The shade-intolerant mountain pines follow diverging growth trajectories that are imposed by extrinsic environmental influences. The resulting trade-offs between growth rate, tree size and lifespan advance our understanding of tree population dynamics, which may ultimately improve projections of forest dynamics under changing environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christof Bigler
- Forest Ecology, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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11
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Peters RL, Groenendijk P, Vlam M, Zuidema PA. Detecting long-term growth trends using tree rings: a critical evaluation of methods. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2015; 21:2040-2054. [PMID: 25482401 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Tree-ring analysis is often used to assess long-term trends in tree growth. A variety of growth-trend detection methods (GDMs) exist to disentangle age/size trends in growth from long-term growth changes. However, these detrending methods strongly differ in approach, with possible implications for their output. Here, we critically evaluate the consistency, sensitivity, reliability and accuracy of four most widely used GDMs: conservative detrending (CD) applies mathematical functions to correct for decreasing ring widths with age; basal area correction (BAC) transforms diameter into basal area growth; regional curve standardization (RCS) detrends individual tree-ring series using average age/size trends; and size class isolation (SCI) calculates growth trends within separate size classes. First, we evaluated whether these GDMs produce consistent results applied to an empirical tree-ring data set of Melia azedarach, a tropical tree species from Thailand. Three GDMs yielded similar results - a growth decline over time - but the widely used CD method did not detect any change. Second, we assessed the sensitivity (probability of correct growth-trend detection), reliability (100% minus probability of detecting false trends) and accuracy (whether the strength of imposed trends is correctly detected) of these GDMs, by applying them to simulated growth trajectories with different imposed trends: no trend, strong trends (-6% and +6% change per decade) and weak trends (-2%, +2%). All methods except CD, showed high sensitivity, reliability and accuracy to detect strong imposed trends. However, these were considerably lower in the weak or no-trend scenarios. BAC showed good sensitivity and accuracy, but low reliability, indicating uncertainty of trend detection using this method. Our study reveals that the choice of GDM influences results of growth-trend studies. We recommend applying multiple methods when analysing trends and encourage performing sensitivity and reliability analysis. Finally, we recommend SCI and RCS, as these methods showed highest reliability to detect long-term growth trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Peters
- Forest Ecology & Forest Management group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Landscape Dynamics, Swiss Federal Research Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), Zürcherstrasse 111, CH-8903, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
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