Epidemiology of peritonitis following maintenance peritoneal dialysis catheter placement during infancy: a report of the SCOPE collaborative

Decreased incidence of peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis in young children

AIM

Peritonitis is the most common complication of peritoneal dialysis (PD). This study aimed to investigate changes in the incidence, risk factors, microbiology, and clinical outcomes of PD-associated peritonitis in the past decades.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study that included children who initiated chronic PD at our institution between 2000 and 2017. The patients were divided into two groups according to the year of initiation: those who initiated PD between 2000 and 2008 and those who initiated PD between 2009 and 2017. The incidence and characteristics of peritonitis were compared between the groups.

RESULTS

A total of 184 patients with a median age of 10.2 years were included in this study. Of the patients, 92 experienced 210 episodes of peritonitis. The incidence rate of peritonitis decreased from 0.35 to 0.21 episodes/patient year during the study period (P = 0.001). During the 2000-2008 period, the 2-year peritonitis-free survival rate was significantly lower for patients under 2 years of age than for the other age groups (P = 0.004), whereas this was not observed during the 2009-2017 period. The multivariable Cox proportional hazard model showed that the <2 years age group had a significantly higher risk of developing peritonitis in the 2000-2008 period. However, this was not evident in the 2009-2017 period.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of PD-associated peritonitis decreased, particularly in children under 2 years of age. Thus, younger age may not be a risk factor for PD-associated peritonitis.

Clinical practice guideline for the prevention and management of peritoneal dialysis associated infections in children: 2024 update

Infection-related complications remain the most significant cause for morbidity and technique failure in infants, children and adolescents who receive maintenance peritoneal dialysis (PD). The 2024 update of the Clinical Practice Guideline for the Prevention and Management of Peritoneal Dialysis Associated Infection in Children builds upon previous such guidelines published in 2000 and 2012 and provides comprehensive treatment guidance as recommended by an international group of pediatric PD experts based upon a review of published literature and pediatric PD registry data. The workgroup prioritized updating key clinical issues contained in the 2012 guidelines, in addition to addressing additional questions developed using the PICO format. A variety of new guideline statements, highlighted by those pertaining to antibiotic therapy of peritonitis as a result of the evolution of antibiotic susceptibilities, antibiotic stewardship and clinical registry data, as well as new clinical benchmarks, are included. Recommendations for future research designed to fill important knowledge gaps are also provided.

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in children receiving peritoneal dialysis: A tertiary centre long-term experience and literature review

BACKGROUND

Children with severe chronic kidney disease receiving maintenance peritoneal dialysis (PD) are often malnourished and may require nutritional supplementation. Recent PD guidelines address laparoscopic and open surgical gastrostomy as safe approaches in children established on PD, while existing evidence on percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is still lacking; as well as the role of perioperative antibiotic and antifungal prophylaxis. Hence, this study aimed to report our experience with PEG placement in patients on PD and compare it with the available literature.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical records from patients on PD, who underwent PEG placement at a tertiary referral centre between 2000 and 2020. Data on perioperative management, complications and outcomes were retrieved. An extensive literature search was performed; studies describing PEG placement and perioperative prophylaxis in patients on PD were used as a comparison. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

Seven patients (five males) were included. Perioperative antibiotic and antifungal prophylaxis were standard practice. At a median follow-up of 27 months (10-75), the peritonitis rate was 0.2 patient/years. No statistical significance was found between the peritonitis rate before and after PEG placement (p = 0.2). Patients' demographics and postoperative complications were comparable to the reported studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our experience, our technique of PEG insertion with antimicrobial prophylaxis is feasible and associated with an acceptable complication risk in patients on PD. Further multicentric studies about surgical technique in patients on PD will be necessary to verify the feasibility of PEG and standardise the perioperative protocol.

Frequency and prognosis of peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis in children

BACKGROUND

Peritonitis is the leading cause of peritoneal dialysis (PD) discontinuation. However, few data concern risk factors of peritonitis development and catheter removal caused by treatment failure in pediatric patients.

METHODS

This single-center, retrospective study analyzed data from pediatric patients who underwent chronic PD between March 2002 and June 2022. The incidence rates of peritonitis by the person-year method were calculated, and they were stratified by patient age groups. Risk factors for peritonitis development and catheter removal were also analyzed by multivariate analysis using logistic regression model.

RESULTS

Ninety patients were enrolled, and 62 peritonitis episodes were observed in 41 (46%) patients. The incidence rate of peritonitis was 0.21 episodes per patient-year, which was the highest in children aged under 2 years old (0.26 episodes per patient-year). Moreover, 44 (71%) cases were successfully cured by antibiotics alone, although 17 (27%) cases required catheter removal, and 4 (6%) cases transitioned to chronic hemodialysis because of peritoneal dysfunction. One patient died. The risk factor for peritonitis development and catheter removal caused by treatment failure was PD insertion at under 2 years old (odds ratio = 2.5; P = 0.04) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (odds ratio = 11.0; P = 0.04) in the multivariate analysis. P. aeruginosa was also a risk factor for difficulty in re-initiating PD (P = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence rate of peritonitis was the highest in children under 2 years old. P. aeruginosa peritonitis is a risk factor for catheter removal and peritoneal dysfunction.

SAGES peritoneal dialysis access guideline update 2023

BACKGROUND

Minimally invasive surgery has been used for both de novo insertion and salvage of peritoneal dialysis (PD) catheters. Advanced laparoscopic, basic laparoscopic, open, and image-guided techniques have evolved as the most popular techniques. The aim of this guideline was to develop evidence-based guidelines that support surgeons, patients, and other physicians in decisions on minimally invasive peritoneal dialysis access and the salvage of malfunctioning catheters in both adults and children.

METHODS

A guidelines committee panel of the Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons reviewed the literature since the prior guideline was published in 2014 and developed seven key questions in adults and four in children. After a systematic review of the literature, by the panel, evidence-based recommendations were formulated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach. Recommendations for future research were also proposed.

RESULTS

After systematic review, data extraction, and evidence to decision meetings, the panel agreed on twelve recommendations for the peri-operative performance of laparoscopic peritoneal dialysis access surgery and management of catheter dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

In the adult population, conditional recommendations were made in favor of: staged hernia repair followed by PD catheter insertion over simultaneous and traditional start over urgent start of PD when medically possible. Furthermore, the panel suggested advanced laparoscopic insertion techniques rather than basic laparoscopic techniques or open insertion. Conditional recommendations were made for either advanced laparoscopic or image-guided percutaneous insertion and for either nonoperative or operative salvage. A recommendation could not be made regarding concomitant clean-contaminated surgery in adults. In the pediatric population, conditional recommendations were made for either traditional or urgent start of PD, concomitant clean or clean-contaminated surgery and PD catheter placement rather than staged, and advanced laparoscopic placement rather than basic or open insertion.

Pediatric peritoneal dialysis training program and its relationship to peritonitis: a study of the International Pediatric Peritoneal Dialysis Network

BACKGROUND

The guidelines for training of patients and caregivers to perform home peritoneal dialysis (PD) uniformly include recommendations pertaining to the prevention of peritonitis. The objective of this study conducted by the International Pediatric Peritoneal Dialysis Network (IPPN) was to investigate the training practices for pediatric PD and to evaluate the impact of these practices on the peritonitis and exit-site infection (ESI) rate.

METHODS

A questionnaire regarding details of the PD program and training practices was distributed to IPPN member centers, while peritonitis and ESI rates were either derived from the IPPN registry or obtained directly from the centers. Poisson univariate and multivariate regression was used to determine the training-related peritonitis and ESI risk factors.

RESULTS

Sixty-two of 137 centers responded. Information on peritonitis and ESI rates were available from fifty centers. Training was conducted by a PD nurse in 93.5% of centers, most commonly (50%) as an in-hospital program. The median total training time was 24 hours, with a formal assessment conducted in 88.7% and skills demonstration in 71% of centers. Home visits were performed by 58% of centers. Shorter (< 20 hours) training duration and lower number of training tools (both p < 0.02) were associated with higher peritonitis rate, after adjustment for proportion of treated infants and income of country of residence.

CONCLUSIONS

An association between training duration and the number of training tools represent potentially modifiable risk factors to reduce peritonitis rates within the pediatric PD population. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Survival of neonates born with kidney failure during the initial hospitalization

BACKGROUND

Survival to hospital discharge in neonates born with kidney failure has not been previously described.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, observational analysis of the Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) database from 2005 to 2019. Primary outcome was survival at discharge; secondary outcomes were hospital and ICU length of stay (LOS). Univariate analysis was performed to describe the population by birth weight (BW) and characterize survival; multivariable generalized liner mixed modeling assuming a binomial distribution and logit link was performed to identify mortality risk factors.

RESULTS

Of 213 neonates born with kidney failure (median BW 2714 g; GA 35 weeks; 68% male), 4 (1.9%) did not receive dialysis or peritoneal dialysis (PD) catheter placement, 152 (72.9%) received PD only, 49 (23.4%) received PD plus extracorporeal dialysis (ECD), and 8 (3.4%) were treated with an undocumented dialysis modality. Median age at dialysis initiation was 7 days; median hospital LOS and ICU LOS were 84 and 69 days, respectively. One-hundred and sixty-two patients (76%) survived to discharge. Non-survivors (n = 51) were more likely to have received ECD and mechanical ventilation, and had a longer duration of mechanical ventilation. Every day of mechanical ventilation increased the mortality odds by 2% (n = 189; adjusted OR 1.02; 1.01, 1.03); in addition, the odds of mortality were 2 times higher in those who received ECD vs. only PD (adjusted OR 2.25; 1.04, 4.86).

CONCLUSIONS

Survival to initial hospital discharge occurs in the majority of neonates born with kidney failure. Predictors of increased mortality included longer duration of mechanical ventilation, as well as the requirement for ECD. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Survival analysis among pediatric patients receiving kidney replacement therapy: a Japanese nationwide cohort study

BACKGROUND

Limited data are available on the survival and causes of death in pediatric patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 5 receiving kidney replacement therapy (KRT) in Asia.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the Japanese nationwide cross-sectional CKD stage 5 survey on pediatric patients (<20 years of age) who started KRT from 2006 to 2013. The cohort was divided into three groups according to age at the start of KRT: <1, 1-5, and 6-19 years.

RESULTS

Among the 701 children who were included, 59.3% were boys. Peritoneal dialysis was the most common initial modality of KRT (60.3%). Median age at KRT initiation was 10.2 years. Infants (<1 year old) accounted for 16.0% of the total cohort. Overall survival at 1 and 5 years was 97.2% and 92.5%, respectively. Infants had significantly lower survival rates than the other groups (hazard ratio, 5.35; 95% CI, 2.60-11.03; P < 0.001). In contrast, after the age of 1 year, the survival rate improved and did not differ from that of other age groups. The most common causes of death were infection (35.9%) and sudden death (15.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

The overall survival rate of pediatric patients with CKD stage 5 in Japan is like that in other high-income countries. Age at initiation of KRT is an important factor affecting survival since the poorest survival rate was observed in infants. Further improvement in infant dialysis therapy is still needed to improve survival of the youngest children. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Feasibility of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy insertion in children receiving peritoneal dialysis

BACKGROUND

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is the preferred dialysis modality for paediatric patients with end-stage kidney disease. Frequently, malnutrition is encountered. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is the preferred mode of feeding because of its minimal invasive mode of placement and easy handling in daily life. However, reports of a high risk for early post-interventional peritonitis hampered this procedure during PD and controlled studies on the benefit of peri-interventional management to prevent peritonitis are lacking. Here, we report the safety profile of PEG insertion among a cohort of children on PD by using a prophylactic antibiotic and antifungal regimen as well as modification of the PD programme.

METHODS

We performed a single-centre analysis of paediatric PD patients receiving PEG placement between 2015 and 2020. Demographic data, peri-interventional prophylactic antibiotic and antifungal treatment as well as modification of the PD programme were gathered and the incidence of peritonitis within a period of 28 days after PEG was calculated.

RESULTS

Eight PD patients (median weight 6.7 kg) received PEG insertion. Antibiotic and antifungal prophylaxis were prescribed for median time of 4.0 and 5.0 days, respectively. After individual reduction of PD intensity, all patients continued their regular PD programme after a median of 6 days. One patient developed peritonitis within 24 h after PEG insertion and simultaneous surgery for hydrocele.

CONCLUSIONS

Applying an antibiotic and antifungal prophylactic regime as well as an adapted PD programme may reduce the risk for peritonitis in paediatric PD patients who receive PEG procedure.

Continued reduction in peritonitis rates in pediatric dialysis centers: results of the Standardizing Care to Improve Outcomes in Pediatric End Stage Renal Disease (SCOPE) Collaborative

BACKGROUND

In its first 3 years, the Standardizing Care to Improve Outcomes in Pediatric End Stage Renal Disease (SCOPE) Collaborative demonstrated a statistically significant increase in the likelihood of compliance with a standardized follow-up care bundle and a significant reduction in peritonitis. We sought to determine if compliance with care bundles and low peritonitis rates could be sustained in centers continuously participating for 84 months.

METHODS

Centers that participated from collaborative launch through the 84-month study period and provided pre-launch peritonitis rates were included. Children on maintenance peritoneal dialysis were eligible for enrollment. Changes in bundle compliance were assessed using a logistic regression model or a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM). Changes in average annualized peritonitis rates over time were modeled using GLMMs.

RESULTS

Nineteen centers contributed 1055 patients with 1268 catheters and 17,247 follow-up encounters. The likelihood of follow-up compliance increased significantly over the study period (OR 1.05 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.03, 1.07; p < 0.001). Centers achieved ≥ 80% follow-up bundle compliance by 28 months and maintained a mean compliance of 84% between 28 and 84 months post-launch. Average monthly peritonitis rates decreased from 0.53 (95% CI 0.37, 0.70) infections per patient-year pre-launch to 0.30 (95% CI 0.23, 0.43) at 84 months post-launch, p < 0.001.

CONCLUSIONS

Centers participating in the SCOPE Collaborative for 84 months achieved and maintained a high level of compliance with a standardized follow-up care bundle and demonstrated a significant and continued reduction in average monthly peritonitis rates.

Eosinophilic peritonitis in children on chronic peritoneal dialysis

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic peritonitis (EP) is sometimes difficult to distinguish from bacterial peritonitis (BP) at onset, as they are often overlapping. Previous reports show EP occurs more frequently in infants, although the reason is unknown.

METHODS

The study population was 77 pediatric patients receiving chronic peritoneal dialysis (PD) in our center. We compared clinical and laboratory data at onset of EP with those of BP. We also investigated age distribution at onset of EP and PD-related surgery.

RESULTS

Eleven patients developed EP (18 episodes) and 19 patients developed BP (38 episodes). EP patients showed lower rate of cloudy dialysate (44.4% vs. 74.4%; p = 0.04), lower rate of fever (38.9% vs. 56.4%), lower frequency of abdominal pain (16.7% vs. 38.5%), higher peripheral blood eosinophil counts (/μL) (514 vs. 160; p < 0.001), and lower serum C-reactive protein level (mg/dL) (0.4 vs. 4.7; p < 0.001) than BP patients. Thirteen EP events were observed after 169 surgical interventions. Age at surgery-related EP was similar to age at surgery without EP (2.6 vs. 2.1; p = 0.65). There was no significant difference in postoperative EP occurrence between groups <2 years and ≥ 2 years (6.2% vs. 9.1%; p = 0.48). However, infants received more operations than older children.

CONCLUSION

Clinical symptoms in children and laboratory data of EP in children were less severe than those of BP. As incidence of postoperative EP did not differ by age, we speculate that higher incidence of EP in infants might be associated with higher incidence of surgery, although further validation is necessary.

Acute peritoneal dialysis, complications and outcomes in 389 children with STEC-HUS: a multicenter experience

BACKGROUND

Management of acute kidney injury (AKI) in children with hemolytic uremic syndrome induced by a Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection (STEC-HUS) is supportive; however, 40 to 60% of cases need kidney replacement therapy (KRT). The aim of this study was to analyze procedure complications, especially peritonitis, and clinical outcomes in children with AKI secondary to STEC-HUS treated with acute PD.

METHODS

This is a multicenter retrospective study conducted among thirty-seven Argentinian centers. We reviewed medical records of 389 children with STEC-HUS hospitalized between January 2015 and February 2019 that required PD.

RESULTS

Complications associated with PD were catheter malfunction (n = 93, 24%), peritonitis (n = 75, 19%), fluid leaks (n = 45, 11.5%), bleeding events (n = 23, 6%), and hyperglycemia (n = 8, 2%). In the multivariate analysis, the use of antibiotic prophylaxis was independently associated with a decreased risk of peritonitis (hazard ratio 0.49, IC 95% 0.29-0.81; p = 0.001), and open-surgery catheter insertion was independently associated with a higher risk (hazard ratio 2.8, IC 95% 1.21-6.82; p = 0.001). Discontinuation of PD due to peritonitis, severe leak, or mechanical complications occurred in 3.8% of patients. No patient needed to be transitioned to other modality of KRT due to inefficacy of the technique. Mortality during the acute phase occurred in 2.8% patients due to extrarenal complications (neurological and cardiac involvement), not related to PD.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute PD was a safe and effective method to manage AKI in children with STEC-HUS. Prophylactic antibiotics prior to insertion of the PD catheter should be considered to decrease the incidence of peritonitis.

Review: Neonatal dialysis is technically feasible but ethical and global issues need to be addressed

AIM

Our aim was to look at the technical, ethical and global issues related to neonatal dialysis.

METHODS

We performed a PubMed research on manuscripts published from March 2010 to March 2020 and retrospectively reviewed all neonates who received dialysis in our French paediatric and neonatal intensive care units from April 2009 to March 2019.

RESULTS

Dialysis is performed on neonates with pre-existing renal diseases, acute kidney injuries or inborn errors of metabolism. It is required in 0.5%-1% of neonates admitted to the neonatal intensive care units. Peritoneal dialysis and extracorporeal blood purification are both feasible, with more complications, but the results are close to those obtained in older infants, at least in children without multi-organ dysfunction. Novel haemodialysis machines are being evaluated. Ethical issues are a major concern. Multidisciplinary teams should consider associated comorbidities, risks of permanent end-stage renal disease and provide parents with full and neutral information. These should drive decisions about whether dialysis is in child's best interests.

CONCLUSION

Neonatal dialysis is technically feasible, but ethically challenging, and short-term and long-term data remain limited. Prospective studies and dialysis registries would improve global management and quality of life of these patients at risk of chronic kidney disease.

Delivery of a nutritional prescription by enteral tube feeding in children with chronic kidney disease stages 2-5 and on dialysis-clinical practice recommendations from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce

The nutritional prescription (whether in the form of food or liquid formulas) may be taken orally when a child has the capacity for spontaneous intake by mouth, but may need to be administered partially or completely by nasogastric tube or gastrostomy device ("enteral tube feeding"). The relative use of each of these methods varies both within and between countries. The Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT), an international team of pediatric renal dietitians and pediatric nephrologists, has developed clinical practice recommendations (CPRs) based on evidence where available, or on the expert opinion of the Taskforce members, using a Delphi process to seek consensus from the wider community of experts in the field. We present CPRs for delivery of the nutritional prescription via enteral tube feeding to children with chronic kidney disease stages 2-5 and on dialysis. We address the types of enteral feeding tubes, when they should be used, placement techniques, recommendations and contraindications for their use, and evidence for their effects on growth parameters. Statements with a low grade of evidence, or based on opinion, must be considered and adapted for the individual patient by the treating physician and dietitian according to their clinical judgement. Research recommendations have been suggested. The CPRs will be regularly audited and updated by the PRNT.

Long-term outcomes of peritoneal dialysis started in infants below 6 months of age: An experience from two tertiary centres

BACKGROUND

Little data are available for infants who started renal replacement therapy before 6 months of age. Because of extra-renal comorbidities and uncertain outcomes, whether renal replacement therapy in neonates is justified remains debatable.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of all patients who began chronic peritoneal dialysis below 6 months between 2007 and 2017 in two tertiary centres. Results are presented as median (min;max).

RESULTS

Seventeen patients (10 boys) were included (8 prenatal diagnoses, 6 premies), with the following diagnoses: congenital anomalies of kidney and urinary tract (n=9), oxalosis (n=5), congenital nephrotic syndrome (n=2) and renal vein thrombosis (n=1). Five patients had associated comorbidities. At peritoneal dialysis initiation, age was 2.6 (0.1;5.9) months, height-standard deviation score (SDS) -1.3 (-5.7;1.6) and weight-SDS -1.4 (-3.6;0.6). Peritoneal dialysis duration was 12 (2;32) months, and at peritoneal dialysis discontinuation height-SDS was -1.0 (-4.3;0.7) weight-SDS -0.7 (-3.2;0.2), parathyroid hormone 123 (44;1540) ng/L, and hemoglobin 110 (73;174) g/L. During the first 6 months of peritoneal dialysis, the median time of hospitalisation stay was 69 (15;182) days. Ten patients presented a total of 27 peritonitis episodes. Reasons for peritoneal dialysis discontinuation were switch to hemodialysis (n=6), transplantation (n=6), recovery of renal function (n=2) and death (n=1). After a follow-up of 4.3 (1.7;10.3) years, 12 patients were transplanted, 2 patients were still on peritoneal dialysis, 2 patients were dialysis free with severe chronic kidney disease and 1 patient had died. Seven patients displayed neurodevelopmental delay, of whom five needed special schooling.

CONCLUSION

We confirm that most infants starting peritoneal dialysis before 6 months of age will be successfully transplanted and will have a favourable growth outcome. Their quality of life will be impacted by recurrent hospitalisations and neurodevelopmental delay is frequent.

Streptococcus salivarius peritonitis in an infant receiving chronic peritoneal dialysis

Peritonitis is the most common infectious complication of chronic peritoneal dialysis in children and the most common reason for hospitalization. Although the most common organisms responsible for peritonitis are gram-positive bacteria, peritonitis has not previously been reported secondary to Streptococcus salivarius, one of the 26 species in the Streptococcus viridians group. We describe a 4-month-old male who developed S. salivarius peritonitis while receiving automated peritoneal dialysis and who was successfully treated with a 14-day course of intraperitoneal vancomycin. Subtyping episodes of S. viridans-related infection is essential for the identification of S. salivarius.

End-stage kidney disease in infancy: an educational review

An increasing number of infants with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) are surviving and receiving renal replacement therapy (RRT). Unique clinical issues specific to this age group of patients influence their short- and long-term outcomes. This review summarizes current epidemiology, clinical characteristics, ethical dilemmas, management concerns, and outcomes of infants requiring chronic dialysis therapy. Optimal care during infancy requires a multidisciplinary team working closely with the patient's family. Nutritional management, infection prevention, and attention to cardiovascular status are important treatment targets. Although mortality rates remain higher among infants on dialysis compared to older pediatric dialysis patients, outcomes have improved over time. Most importantly, infants who subsequently receive a kidney transplant are now experiencing graft survival rates that are comparable to older pediatric patients.

Colostomy in children on chronic peritoneal dialysis

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to evaluate outcome of children on chronic peritoneal dialysis (PD) with a concurrent colostomy.

METHODS

Patients were identified through the International Pediatric Peritoneal Dialysis Network (IPPN) registry. Matched controls were randomly selected from the registry. Data were collected through the IPPN database and a survey disseminated to all participating sites.

RESULTS

Fifteen centers reported 20 children who received chronic PD with a co-existing colostomy. The most common cause of end stage kidney disease was congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (n = 16, 80%). The main reason for colostomy placement was anorectal malformation (n = 13, 65%). The median age at colostomy creation and PD catheter (PDC) insertion were 0.1 (IQR, 0-2.2) and 2.8 (IQR 0.2-18.8) months, respectively. The colostomies and PDCs were present together for a median 18 (IQR, 4.9-35.8) months. The median age at PDC placement in 46 controls was 3.4 (IQR, 0.2-7.4) months of age. Fourteen patients (70%) developed 39 episodes of peritonitis. The annualized peritonitis rate was significantly higher in the colostomy group (1.13 vs. 0.70 episodes per patient year; p = 0.02). Predominant causative microorganisms were Staphylococcus aureus (15%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (13%). There were 12 exit site infection (ESI) episodes reported exclusively in colostomy patients. Seven colostomy children (35%) died during their course of PD, in two cases due to peritonitis.

CONCLUSION

Although feasible in children with a colostomy, chronic PD is associated with an increased risk of peritonitis and mortality. Continued efforts to reduce infection risk for this complex patient population are essential.

Risk factors for early onset peritonitis: the SCOPE collaborative

BACKGROUND

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is the preferred chronic dialysis modality amongst pediatric patients. Peritonitis is a devastating complication of PD. Adult data demonstrates early onset peritonitis (EP) is associated with higher rates of subsequent peritonitis and technique failure. Limited data exists regarding EP in the pediatric population, here defined as peritonitis occurring within 60 days of catheter insertion.

METHODS

PD catheter insertion practices and EP episodes were examined from the Standardizing Care to Improve Outcomes in Pediatric End Stage Renal Disease (SCOPE) collaborative database.

RESULTS

There were 98 episodes of EP amongst 1106 PD catheters inserted. Multivariable analysis demonstrated a significant association between early use of the PD catheter and EP (P = 0.001). Age less than 1 year at the time of catheter insertion (P < 0.001), first catheter placed (P < 0.001) for the patient, use of a plastic adapter (P = 0.003), placement of sutures at the exit site (ES) (P = 0.032), and dressing change prior to 7 days post-operatively (P < 0.001) were all significantly associated with early PD catheter use. Concurrent placement of a hemodialysis catheter was associated with a decreased risk for early PD catheter use (P = 0.010).

CONCLUSIONS

In this large cohort of pediatric PD recipients, 8.4% of PD catheters were associated with the development of EP. The finding of an association between early use of the PD catheter and EP represents a potentially modifiable risk factor to reduce infection rates within this patient population.

Peritoneal dialysis catheter outcomes in infants initiating peritoneal dialysis for end-stage renal disease

Background

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) although rare among infants presents many management challenges. We sought to evaluate factors associated with PD catheter failure among infants initiated on chronic PD.

Methods

A retrospective chart review of all children under two years of age who had PD catheters placed for initiation of chronic PD from 2002 to 2015. Data was extracted for catheter related events occurring within 12 months of catheter placement. Cox and Poisson regression models were used to delineate factors associated catheter complications.

Results

Twenty-five infants with median age 18 days had PD catheters placed for chronic dialysis. Common complications included leakage around the exit site (31%), blockage (26%), migration or malposition (23%), catheter-related infections (18%), and other complications (2%). Predictors of initial PD catheter failure were age less than one month at catheter placement (hazard ratio (HR) 7.77, 95% CI, 1.70–35.39, p = 0.008), use of catheter within three days of placement (HR 5.67, 95% CI, 1.39–23.10, p = 0.015) and presence of a hernia (HR 8.64, 95% CI, 1.19–62.36, p = 0.033). In an adjusted Poisson regression model, PD catheter use within three days of placement was the only predictor of any catheter complication over the12 months of follow up.

Conclusions

Use of PD catheters within three days of placement was associated with catheter failure. We recommend that when possible, catheters should be allowed to heal for at least three days prior to use to reduce risk of complications and improve catheter survival.

Fungal peritonitis in the Standardizing Care to Improve Outcomes in Pediatric End Stage Renal Disease (SCOPE) Collaborative

BACKGROUND

Fungal peritonitis is a serious complication among peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. The Standardizing Care to Improve Outcomes in Pediatric End Stage Renal Disease (SCOPE) Collaborative is a North American multicenter quality improvement initiative with the primary aim to reduce catheter-related infections in children on chronic dialysis.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the epidemiology of fungal peritonitis and outcomes of affected patients among pediatric subjects receiving chronic PD and enrolled in SCOPE.

METHODS

Data pertaining to PD characteristics, peritonitis episodes and patient outcome were collected between October 2011 and September 2015 from 30 pediatric dialysis centers participating in the SCOPE collaborative. Peritonitis-related data were stratified by etiology, fungal versus bacterial/culture-negative peritonitis. Differences among groups were assessed by Chi-square analysis.

RESULTS

Of 994 patients enrolled in the registry, there were 511 peritonitis episodes of which 41 (8.0%) were fungal. Thirty-six individual patients with 39 unique catheters accounted for the fungal peritonitis episodes. Twenty-three (59%) of the episodes occurred in patients aged < 2 years (p = 0.03). Fungal peritonitis was the initial episode of peritonitis in 48.8% of affected patients, and only 17.1% of these patients had had a previous peritonitis episode within 30 days of the fungal infection. Insertion of the PD catheter at < 2 years of age was associated with an adjusted odds ratio of 2.8 (95% confidence interval 1.24, 6.31) for development of fungal peritonitis compared to older children (p = 0.01). Fungal peritonitis was associated with an increased rate of hospitalization (80.5 vs. 63.4%; p = 0.03), increased length of hospitalization (median of 8 vs. 5 days; p < 0.001) and increased rates of catheter removal (84.6 vs 26.9%; p = 0.001) and technique failure (68.3 vs. 8%; p = 0.001) compared to other causes of peritonitis.

CONCLUSION

Fungal infections were responsible for 8.0% of peritonitis episodes in the SCOPE collaborative, with the majority of fungal peritonitis episodes occurring in children aged < 2 years. Although no risk factors for infection other than young age were identified, fungal peritonitis was associated with an increased risk of hospitalization, longer hospital stay and an increased frequency of technique failure.

Peritoneal dialysis and infants: further insights into a complicated relationship

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) in infants represents one of the greatest challenges for pediatric nephrologists. Over recent years, positive outcome data described by several multicenter experiences and registry studies have increased the amount of information available to help determine whether to initiate a dialysis program in this high-risk patient population. There is no doubt that the rigorous implementation of strategies aimed at preventing infectious complications may have contributed to reducing the morbidity rate of these patients. However, the complex nature of infants with end-stage renal disease and the presence of multiple comorbidities still represent hallmarks that significantly impact on outcome. Although the rigorous application of improved scientific techniques can still contribute to enhancing PD results in infants, we have to acknowledge that the severity of illness in infants, especially at dialysis initiation, represents an undeniable and nonmodifiable factor.