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Wu H, Wang Y, Ren Z, Liu X, Yu M, Cao Y, Cong H, Yu B, Shen Y. Screening of Short-Chain Antimicrobial Peptide LKARI with Broad-Spectrum Bactericidal Properties and Its Application in Promoting Wound Healing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024. [PMID: 38866723 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c05949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Due to the extensive use of antibiotics, many highly resistant bacteria and extensively resistant bacteria have been produced. In recent years, the increase of drug-resistant bacteria and the resulting proliferation of drug-resistant bacteria have increased the incidence of hospital-acquired infections and caused great harm to human health. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are considered to be an innovative antibiotic and belong to the latest advances in this field. We designed a polypeptide and verified its low minimum inhibitory concentration and broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and fungi in microbiology and pharmacology. Several experiments have confirmed that the screened antimicrobial peptides have significant antidrug resistance and also show significant therapeutic properties in the treatment of systemic bacterial infections. In addition, through our experimental research, it was proved that the antibacterial hydrogel composed of poly(vinyl alcohol), sodium alginate, and antimicrobial peptides had excellent antibacterial properties and showed good wound healing ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Wu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yumei Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Zekai Ren
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xin Liu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Mingtao Yu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yang Cao
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Hailin Cong
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
| | - Bing Yu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Youqing Shen
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, Center for Bionanoengineering, and Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, Hangzhou 310027, China
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2
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Fathi F, Alizadeh B, Tabarzad MV, Tabarzad M. Important structural features of antimicrobial peptides towards specific activity: Trends in the development of efficient therapeutics. Bioorg Chem 2024; 149:107524. [PMID: 38850782 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Proteins and peptides, as polypeptide chains, have usually got unique conformational structures for effective biological activity. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a group of bioactive peptides, which have been increasingly studied during recent years for their promising antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity, as well as, other esteemed bioactivities. Numerous AMPs have been separated from a wide range of natural resources, or produced in vitro through chemical synthesis and recombinant protein expression. Natural AMPs have had limited clinical application due to several drawbacks, such as their short half-life due to protease degradation, lack of activity at physiological salt concentrations, toxicity to mammalian cells, and the absence of suitable methods of delivery for the AMPs that are targeted and sustained. The creation of synthetic analogs of AMPs would both avoid the drawbacks of the natural analogs and maintain or even increase the antimicrobial effectiveness. The structure-activity relationship of discovered AMPs or their derivatives facilitates the development of synthetic AMPs. This review discovered that the relationship between the activity of AMPs and their positive net charge, hydrophobicity, and amino acid sequence and the relationship between AMPs' function and other features like their topology, glycosylation, and halogenation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fariba Fathi
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahareh Alizadeh
- Protein Technology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Vahid Tabarzad
- Protein Technology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Tabarzad
- Protein Technology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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3
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Anurag Anand A, Amod A, Anwar S, Sahoo AK, Sethi G, Samanta SK. A comprehensive guide on screening and selection of a suitable AMP against biofilm-forming bacteria. Crit Rev Microbiol 2023:1-20. [PMID: 38102871 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2023.2293019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Lately, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is increasing at an exponential rate making it important to search alternatives to antibiotics in order to combat multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterial infections. Out of the several antibacterial and antibiofilm strategies being tested, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have shown to give better hopes in terms of a long-lasting solution to the problem. To select a desired AMP, it is important to make right use of available tools and databases that aid in identification, classification, and analysis of the physiochemical properties of AMPs. To identify the targets of these AMPs, it becomes crucial to understand their mode-of-action. AMPs can also be used in combination with other antibacterial and antibiofilm agents so as to achieve enhanced efficacy against bacteria and their biofilms. Due to concerns regarding toxicity, stability, and bioavailability, strategizing drug formulation at an early-stage becomes crucial. Although there are few concerns regarding development of bacterial resistance to AMPs, the evolution of resistance to AMPs occurs extremely slowly. This comprehensive review gives a deep insight into the selection of the right AMP, deciding the right target and combination strategy along with the type of formulation needed, and the possible resistance that bacteria can develop to these AMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ananya Anurag Anand
- Department of Applied Sciences, Indian Institute of Information Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
| | - Ayush Amod
- Department of Applied Sciences, Indian Institute of Information Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
| | - Sarfraz Anwar
- Department of Bioinformatics, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
| | - Amaresh Kumar Sahoo
- Department of Applied Sciences, Indian Institute of Information Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sintu Kumar Samanta
- Department of Applied Sciences, Indian Institute of Information Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
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4
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Park SC, Lee JK, Kim YM, Lee JR. Effects of structural changes on antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity due to proline substitutions in chimeric peptide HnMc. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 679:139-144. [PMID: 37696067 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Owing to the rapidly increasing emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are being explored as next-generation antibiotics. However, AMPs present in nature are highly toxic and exhibit low antibacterial activity. Simple modifications, such as amino acid substitution, can enhance antimicrobial activity and cell selectivity. Herein, we show that HnMc-W, substituted by the Phe1Trp analog of HnMc, a chimeric peptide, resulted in membranolytic antibacterial action and enhanced salt tolerance, whereas HnMc-WP1 with one Ser9Pro substitution resulted in a proline-kink helical structure that increased salt-tolerant antibacterial effects and reduced cytotoxicity. In addition, the HnMc-WP2 peptide, designed with a PXXP motif, had a flexible central hinge in its α-helical structure due to the introduction of two Pro and two Gln (X positions, by deletion of two Gln at positions 16 and 17) residues instead of Ser at position. HnMc-WP2 exhibited excellent antibacterial effects without cytotoxicity in vitro. Moreover, its potent antibacterial activity was demonstrated in a drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa-infected mouse model in vivo. Our findings provide valuable information for the design of peptides with high antibacterial activity and cell selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Cheol Park
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Sunchon National University, Suncheon, 57922, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Kook Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Sunchon National University, Suncheon, 57922, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Min Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Sunchon National University, Suncheon, 57922, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Ro Lee
- LMO Team, National Institute of Ecology (NIE), Seocheon, 33657, Republic of Korea; Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-2128, USA.
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5
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Macyszyn J, Chyży P, Burmistrz M, Lobka M, Miszkiewicz J, Wojciechowska M, Trylska J. Structural dynamics influences the antibacterial activity of a cell-penetrating peptide (KFF) 3K. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14826. [PMID: 37684254 PMCID: PMC10491836 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38745-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Given the widespread demand for novel antibacterial agents, we modified a cell-penetrating peptide (KFF)3K to transform it into an antibacterial peptide. Namely, we inserted a hydrocarbon staple into the (KFF)3K sequence to induce and stabilize its membrane-active secondary structure. The staples were introduced at two positions, (KFF)3K[5-9] and (KFF)3K[2-6], to retain the initial amphipathic character of the unstapled peptide. The stapled analogues are protease resistant contrary to (KFF)3K; 90% of the stapled (KFF)3K[5-9] peptide remained undigested after incubation in chymotrypsin solution. The stapled peptides showed antibacterial activity (with minimal inhibitory concentrations in the range of 2-16 µM) against various Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains, contrary to unmodified (KFF)3K, which had no antibacterial effect against any strain at concentrations up to 32 µM. Also, both stapled peptides adopted an α-helical structure in the buffer and micellar environment, contrary to a mostly undefined structure of the unstapled (KFF)3K in the buffer. We found that the antibacterial activity of (KFF)3K analogues is related to their disruptive effect on cell membranes and we showed that by stapling this cell-penetrating peptide, we can induce its antibacterial character.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Macyszyn
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Chyży
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michał Burmistrz
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Lobka
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Miszkiewicz
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- College of Inter-Faculty Individual Studies in Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Joanna Trylska
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
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Mechkarska M, Cunning TS, Taggart MG, Ternan NG, Leprince J, Coquet L, Jouenne T, Tena-Garcés J, Calvete JJ, Conlon JM. Identification of an Antimicrobial Peptide from the Venom of the Trinidad Thick-Tailed Scorpion Tityus trinitatis with Potent Activity against ESKAPE Pathogens and Clostridioides difficile. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:1404. [PMID: 37760701 PMCID: PMC10525828 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12091404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Envenomation by the Trinidad thick-tailed scorpion Tityus trinitatis may result in fatal myocarditis and there is a high incidence of acute pancreatitis among survivors. Peptidomic analysis (reversed-phase HPLC followed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and automated Edman degradation) of T. trinitatis venom led to the isolation and characterization of three peptides with antimicrobial activity. Their primary structures were established asTtAP-1 (FLGSLFSIGSKLLPGVFKLFSRKKQ.NH2), TtAP-2 (IFGMIPGLIGGLISAFK.NH2) and TtAP-3 (FFSLIPSLIGGLVSAIK.NH2). In addition, potassium channel and sodium channel toxins, present in the venom in high abundance, were identified by CID-MS/MS sequence analysis. TtAP-1 was the most potent against a range of clinically relevant Gram-positive and Gram-negative aerobes and against the anaerobe Clostridioides difficile (MIC = 3.1-12.5 µg/mL). At a concentration of 1× MIC, TtAP-1 produced rapid cell death (<15 min against Acinetobacter baumannii and Staphylococcus aureus). The therapeutic potential of TtAP-1 as an anti-infective agent is limited by its high hemolytic activity (LC50 = 18 µg/mL against mouse erythrocytes) but the peptide constitutes a template for the design of analogs that maintain the high bactericidal activity against ESKAPE pathogens but are less toxic to human cells. It is suggested that the antimicrobial peptides in the scorpion venom facilitate the action of the neurotoxins by increasing the membrane permeability of cells from either prey or predator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Mechkarska
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, St. Augustine Campus, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Taylor S. Cunning
- Nutrition Innovation Centre for Food and Health (NICHE), School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, UK; (T.S.C.); (M.G.T.); (N.G.T.)
| | - Megan G. Taggart
- Nutrition Innovation Centre for Food and Health (NICHE), School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, UK; (T.S.C.); (M.G.T.); (N.G.T.)
| | - Nigel G. Ternan
- Nutrition Innovation Centre for Food and Health (NICHE), School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, UK; (T.S.C.); (M.G.T.); (N.G.T.)
| | - Jérôme Leprince
- Université Rouen Normandie, INSERM, NorDiC UMR 1239, HeRacLeS, US 51, PRIMACEN, F-76000 Rouen, France;
| | - Laurent Coquet
- Université Rouen Normandie, INSA Rouen Normandie, CNRS, PBS UMR 6270, HeRacLeS US 51 UAR 2026 PISSARO, F-76000 Rouen, France; (L.C.); (T.J.)
| | - Thierry Jouenne
- Université Rouen Normandie, INSA Rouen Normandie, CNRS, PBS UMR 6270, HeRacLeS US 51 UAR 2026 PISSARO, F-76000 Rouen, France; (L.C.); (T.J.)
| | - Jordi Tena-Garcés
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 46010 Valencia, Spain; (J.T.-G.); (J.J.C.)
| | - Juan J. Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 46010 Valencia, Spain; (J.T.-G.); (J.J.C.)
| | - J. Michael Conlon
- Diabetes Research Centre, School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, UK;
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Galeane MC, Gomes PC, Singulani JL, Mendes-Giannini MJ, Fusco-Almeida AM. Study of IsCT analogue peptide against Candida albicans and toxicity/teratogenicity in zebrafish embryos ( Danio rerio). Future Microbiol 2023; 18:939-947. [PMID: 37702001 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2022-0210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: An IsCT analogue peptide (PepM3) was designed based on structural studies of wasp mastoparans and tested against Candida albicans. Its effects on fungal cell membranes and toxicity were evaluated. Materials & methods: Antifungal activity was analyzed using a microdilution susceptibility test. Toxicity was assessed using human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT) and zebrafish embryos. Results: PepM3 demonstrated activity against C. albicans and a synergistic effect with amphotericin B. The peptide presented fungicidal action with damage to the fungal cell membrane, low toxicity in HaCat cells and was nonteratogenic in zebrafish embryos. Conclusion: Evaluating structural modifications is essential for the development of new agents with potential activity against fungal pathogens and for the reduction of toxic and teratogenic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana C Galeane
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo C Gomes
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Junya L Singulani
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria Js Mendes-Giannini
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana M Fusco-Almeida
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
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Jakubec M, Rylandsholm FG, Rainsford P, Silk M, Bril'kov M, Kristoffersen T, Juskewitz E, Ericson JU, Svendsen JSM. Goldilocks Dilemma: LPS Works Both as the Initial Target and a Barrier for the Antimicrobial Action of Cationic AMPs on E. coli. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1155. [PMID: 37509189 PMCID: PMC10377513 DOI: 10.3390/biom13071155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are generally membrane-active compounds that physically disrupt bacterial membranes. Despite extensive research, the precise mode of action of AMPs is still a topic of great debate. This work demonstrates that the initial interaction between the Gram-negative E. coli and AMPs is driven by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) that act as kinetic barriers for the binding of AMPs to the bacterial membrane. A combination of SPR and NMR experiments provide evidence suggesting that cationic AMPs first bind to the negatively charged LPS before reaching a binding place in the lipid bilayer. In the event that the initial LPS-binding is too strong (corresponding to a low dissociation rate), the cationic AMPs cannot effectively get from the LPS to the membrane, and their antimicrobial potency will thus be diminished. On the other hand, the AMPs must also be able to effectively interact with the membrane to exert its activity. The ability of the studied cyclic hexapeptides to bind LPS and to translocate into a lipid membrane is related to the nature of the cationic charge (arginine vs. lysine) and to the distribution of hydrophobicity along the molecule (alternating vs. clumped tryptophan).
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Jakubec
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Fredrik G Rylandsholm
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Philip Rainsford
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Mitchell Silk
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Maxim Bril'kov
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tone Kristoffersen
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Eric Juskewitz
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Johanna U Ericson
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - John Sigurd M Svendsen
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
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Boss L, Kędzierska B. Bacterial Toxin-Antitoxin Systems' Cross-Interactions-Implications for Practical Use in Medicine and Biotechnology. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:380. [PMID: 37368681 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are widely present in bacterial genomes. They consist of stable toxins and unstable antitoxins that are classified into distinct groups based on their structure and biological activity. TA systems are mostly related to mobile genetic elements and can be easily acquired through horizontal gene transfer. The ubiquity of different homologous and non-homologous TA systems within a single bacterial genome raises questions about their potential cross-interactions. Unspecific cross-talk between toxins and antitoxins of non-cognate modules may unbalance the ratio of the interacting partners and cause an increase in the free toxin level, which can be deleterious to the cell. Moreover, TA systems can be involved in broadly understood molecular networks as transcriptional regulators of other genes' expression or modulators of cellular mRNA stability. In nature, multiple copies of highly similar or identical TA systems are rather infrequent and probably represent a transition stage during evolution to complete insulation or decay of one of them. Nevertheless, several types of cross-interactions have been described in the literature to date. This implies a question of the possibility and consequences of the TA system cross-interactions, especially in the context of the practical application of the TA-based biotechnological and medical strategies, in which such TAs will be used outside their natural context, will be artificially introduced and induced in the new hosts. Thus, in this review, we discuss the prospective challenges of system cross-talks in the safety and effectiveness of TA system usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Boss
- Department of Bacterial Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Barbara Kędzierska
- Department of Bacterial Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland
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