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Lewis LS, Krupenye C. Eye-tracking as a window into primate social cognition. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23393. [PMID: 35635515 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, noninvasive, restraint-free eye-tracking research with primates has transformed our understanding of primate social cognition. The use of this technology with many primate species allows for the exploration and comparison of how these species attend to and understand social agents and interactions. The ability to compare and contrast the cognitive capacities of various primate species, including humans, provides insight into the evolutionary mechanisms and selective pressures that have likely shaped social cognition in similar and divergent ways across the primate order. In this review, we begin by discussing noninvasive behavioral methods used to measure primate gaze and attention before the introduction of noninvasive, restraint-free eye-tracking methodologies. Next, we focus on findings from recent eye-tracking research on primate social cognition, beginning with simple visual and search mechanisms. We then discuss the results that have built on this basic understanding of how primates view images and videos, exploring discrimination and knowledge of social agents, following social cues, tracking perspectives and predicting behavior, and the combination of eye-tracking and other behavioral and physiological methods. Finally, we discuss some future directions of noninvasive eye-tracking research on primate social cognition and current eye-tracking work-in-progress that builds on these previous studies, investigating underexplored socio-cognitive capacities and utilizing new methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura S Lewis
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Christopher Krupenye
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
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2
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Watanabe S, Masuda S, Shinozuka K, Borlongan C. Preference and discrimination of facial expressions of humans, rats, and mice by C57 mice. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:297-306. [PMID: 34417921 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01551-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Social animals likely recognize emotional expressions in other animals. Recent studies suggest that mice can visually perceive emotional expressions of other mice. In the first experiment, we measured the preference of mice for two different facial expressions (a normal facial expression and an expression of negative emotion such as pain) of rats, mice, and humans. Results revealed that mice showed a slight preference for the normal expression over the face expressing pain in the case of rats, but no preference in the case of others. In the second experiment, we trained mice to discriminate between the two facial expressions in an operant chamber with a touch screen. They could discriminate facial expressions of mice and rats, but they did not show discrimination of human facial expressions. Principal component analysis of the images of stimuli reveals negative correlation between pixel-based dissimilarity of training stimuli and the number of sessions to criterion. The mice showed generalization to novel images of the mouse faces with and without pain but did not maintain their discriminative behavior when new rat faces were shown. These results suggest that mice display category discrimination of conspecific facial expressions but not of other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Watanabe
- Department of Psychology, Keio University, Mita 2-15-45, Minato-Ku, Tokyo, 108-8345, Japan.
| | - Sayako Masuda
- Jyumonji University, 2-1-28 Sugasawa, Niiza, Saitama, Japan
| | - Kazutaka Shinozuka
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Cesario Borlongan
- University of South Florida, MDC 78, 12901 Bruce Downs Blvd, Tampa, FL33612, USA
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The application of noninvasive, restraint-free eye-tracking methods for use with nonhuman primates. Behav Res Methods 2021; 53:1003-1030. [PMID: 32935327 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-020-01465-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 50 years there has been a strong interest in applying eye-tracking techniques to study a myriad of questions related to human and nonhuman primate psychological processes. Eye movements and fixations can provide qualitative and quantitative insights into cognitive processes of nonverbal populations such as nonhuman primates, clarifying the evolutionary, physiological, and representational underpinnings of human cognition. While early attempts at nonhuman primate eye tracking were relatively crude, later, more sophisticated and sensitive techniques required invasive protocols and the use of restraint. In the past decade, technology has advanced to a point where noninvasive eye-tracking techniques, developed for use with human participants, can be applied for use with nonhuman primates in a restraint-free manner. Here we review the corpus of recent studies (N=32) that take such an approach. Despite the growing interest in eye-tracking research, there is still little consensus on "best practices," both in terms of deploying test protocols or reporting methods and results. Therefore, we look to advances made in the field of developmental psychology, as well as our own collective experiences using eye trackers with nonhuman primates, to highlight key elements that researchers should consider when designing noninvasive restraint-free eye-tracking research protocols for use with nonhuman primates. Beyond promoting best practices for research protocols, we also outline an ideal approach for reporting such research and highlight future directions for the field.
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Lau AR, Grote MN, Dufek ME, Franzetti TJ, Bales KL, Isbell LA. Titi monkey neophobia and visual abilities allow for fast responses to novel stimuli. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2578. [PMID: 33510399 PMCID: PMC7844259 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82116-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The Snake Detection Theory implicates constricting snakes in the origin of primates, and venomous snakes for differences between catarrhine and platyrrhine primate visual systems. Although many studies using different methods have found very rapid snake detection in catarrhines, including humans, to date no studies have examined how quickly platyrrhine primates can detect snakes. We therefore tested in captive coppery titi monkeys (Plecturocebus cupreus) the latency to detect a small portion of visible snake skin. Because titi monkeys are neophobic, we designed a crossover experiment to compare their latency to look and their duration of looking at a snake skin and synthetic feather of two lengths (2.5 cm and uncovered). To test our predictions that the latency to look would be shorter and the duration of looking would be longer for the snake skin, we used survival/event time models for latency to look and negative binomial mixed models for duration of looking. While titi monkeys looked more quickly and for longer at both the snake skin and feather compared to a control, they also looked more quickly and for longer at larger compared to smaller stimuli. This suggests titi monkeys' neophobia may augment their visual abilities to help them avoid dangerous stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison R Lau
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Mark N Grote
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Madison E Dufek
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Tristan J Franzetti
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Karen L Bales
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Lynne A Isbell
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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5
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Carole P. Pictorial Competence in Primates: A Cognitive Correlate of Mirror Self-Recognition? Primates 2018. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.75568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Gothard KM, Mosher CP, Zimmerman PE, Putnam PT, Morrow JK, Fuglevand AJ. New perspectives on the neurophysiology of primate amygdala emerging from the study of naturalistic social behaviors. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2017; 9. [PMID: 28800678 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Revised: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A major challenge of primate neurophysiology, particularly in the domain of social neuroscience, is to adopt more natural behaviors without compromising the ability to relate patterns of neural activity to specific actions or sensory inputs. Traditional approaches have identified neural activity patterns in the amygdala in response to simplified versions of social stimuli such as static images of faces. As a departure from this reduced approach, single images of faces were replaced with arrays of images or videos of conspecifics. These stimuli elicited more natural behaviors and new types of neural responses: (1) attention-gated responses to faces, (2) selective responses to eye contact, and (3) selective responses to touch and somatosensory feedback during the production of facial expressions. An additional advance toward more natural social behaviors in the laboratory was the implementation of dyadic social interactions. Under these conditions, neurons encoded similarly rewards that monkeys delivered to self and to their social partner. These findings reinforce the value of bringing natural, ethologically valid, behavioral tasks under neurophysiological scrutiny. WIREs Cogn Sci 2018, 9:e1449. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1449 This article is categorized under: Psychology > Emotion and Motivation Neuroscience > Cognition Neuroscience > Physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katalin M Gothard
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Clayton P Mosher
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Prisca E Zimmerman
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Philip T Putnam
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Jeremiah K Morrow
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Andrew J Fuglevand
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Hirata S, Fuwa K, Myowa M. Chimpanzees recognize their own delayed self-image. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:1-9. [PMID: 28878955 PMCID: PMC5579101 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Unlike mirror self-recognition, recognizing one's own image in delayed video footage may indicate the presence of a concept of self that extends across time and space. While humans typically show this ability around 4 years of age, it is unknown whether this capacity is found in non-human animals. In this study, chimpanzees performed a modified version of the mark test to investigate whether chimpanzees could remove stickers placed on the face and head while watching live and delayed video images. The results showed that three of five chimpanzees consistently removed the mark in delayed-viewing conditions, while they removed the stickers much less frequently in control video conditions which lacked a link to their current state. These findings suggest that chimpanzees, like human children at the age of 4 years and more, can comprehend temporal dissociation in their concept of self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Hirata
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8203, Japan
| | - Kohki Fuwa
- Earth Mate Chimpanzee Next, Tamano, Okayama 706-0316, Japan
| | - Masako Myowa
- Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8317, Japan
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Anderson JR, Kuroshima H, Fujita K. Observational learning in capuchin monkeys: a video deficit effect. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2016; 70:1254-1262. [PMID: 27138372 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2016.1178312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Young human children have been shown to learn less effectively from video or televised images than from real-life demonstrations. Although nonhuman primates respond to and can learn from video images, there is a lack of direct comparisons of task acquisition from video and live demonstrations. To address this gap in knowledge, we presented capuchin monkeys with video clips of a human demonstrator explicitly hiding food under one of two containers. The clips were presented at normal, faster than normal, or slower than normal speed, and then the monkeys were allowed to choose between the real containers. Even after 55 sessions and hundreds of video demonstration trials the monkeys' performances indicated no mastery of the task, and there was no effect of video speed. When given live demonstrations of the hiding act, the monkeys' performances were vastly improved. Upon subsequent return to video demonstrations, performances declined to pre-live-demonstration levels, but this time with evidence for an advantage of fast video demonstrations. Demonstration action speed may be one aspect of images that influence nonhuman primates' ability to learn from video images, an ability that in monkeys, as in young children, appears limited compared to learning from live models.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Anderson
- a Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters , Kyoto University , Kyoto , Japan
| | - Hika Kuroshima
- a Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters , Kyoto University , Kyoto , Japan
| | - Kazuo Fujita
- a Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters , Kyoto University , Kyoto , Japan
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Winters S, Dubuc C, Higham JP. Perspectives: The Looking Time Experimental Paradigm in Studies of Animal Visual Perception and Cognition. Ethology 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Winters
- Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York NY USA
| | - Constance Dubuc
- Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York NY USA
| | - James P. Higham
- Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York NY USA
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Chang L, Fang Q, Zhang S, Poo MM, Gong N. Mirror-induced self-directed behaviors in rhesus monkeys after visual-somatosensory training. Curr Biol 2015; 25:212-217. [PMID: 25578908 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mirror self-recognition is a hallmark of higher intelligence in humans. Most children recognize themselves in the mirror by 2 years of age. In contrast to human and some great apes, monkeys have consistently failed the standard mark test for mirror self-recognition in all previous studies. Here, we show that rhesus monkeys could acquire mirror-induced self-directed behaviors resembling mirror self-recognition following training with visual-somatosensory association. Monkeys were trained on a monkey chair in front of a mirror to touch a light spot on their faces produced by a laser light that elicited an irritant sensation. After 2-5 weeks of training, monkeys had learned to touch a face area marked by a non-irritant light spot or odorless dye in front of a mirror and by a virtual face mark on the mirroring video image on a video screen. Furthermore, in the home cage, five out of seven trained monkeys showed typical mirror-induced self-directed behaviors, such as touching the mark on the face or ear and then looking at and/or smelling their fingers, as well as spontaneously using the mirror to explore normally unseen body parts. Four control monkeys of a similar age that went through mirror habituation but had no training of visual-somatosensory association did not pass any mark tests and did not exhibit mirror-induced self-directed behaviors. These results shed light on the origin of mirror self-recognition and suggest a new approach to studying its neural mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangtang Chang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Qin Fang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Shikun Zhang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Mu-Ming Poo
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Neng Gong
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
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Suddendorf T, Butler DL. The nature of visual self-recognition. Trends Cogn Sci 2013; 17:121-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Revised: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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12
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Takimoto A, Fujita K. I acknowledge your help: capuchin monkeys’ sensitivity to others’ labor. Anim Cogn 2011; 14:715-25. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-011-0406-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2010] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 04/11/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Anderson
- Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland.
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Macellini S, Ferrari PF, Bonini L, Fogassi L, Paukner A. A modified mark test for own-body recognition in pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). Anim Cogn 2010; 13:631-9. [PMID: 20148344 PMCID: PMC3638247 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-010-0313-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 01/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Classic mirror self-recognition mark tests involve familiarizing the subject with its mirror image, surreptitiously applying a mark on the subject's eyebrow, nose, or ear, and measuring self-directed behaviors toward the mark. For many non-human primate species, however, direct gaze at the face constitutes an aggressive and threatening signal. It is therefore possible that monkeys fail the mark test because they do not closely inspect their faces in a mirror and hence they have no expectations about their physical appearance. In the current study, we prevented two pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) from seeing their own faces in a mirror, and we adopted a modified version of the classic mark test in which monkeys were marked on the chest, a body region to which they normally have direct visual access but that in the current study was visible only via a mirror. Neither monkey tried to touch the mark on its chest, possibly due to a failure to understand the mirror as a reflective surface. To further the monkeys' understanding of the mirror image, we trained them to reach for food using the mirror as the only source of information. After both monkeys had learned mirror-mediated reaching, we replicated the mark test. In this latter phase of the study, only one monkey scratched the red dye on the chest once. The results are consistent with other findings suggesting that monkeys are not capable of passing a mark test and imply that face and body recognition rely on the same cognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Macellini
- Dipartimento di Biologia Evolutiva e Funzionale, Università degli Studi di Parma, Via Usberti 11/A, Parma, Italy.
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Takimoto A, Kuroshima H, Fujita K. Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) are sensitive to others' reward: an experimental analysis of food-choice for conspecifics. Anim Cogn 2009; 13:249-61. [PMID: 19609580 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-009-0262-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2009] [Revised: 06/30/2009] [Accepted: 06/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The issue whether non-human primates have other-regarding preference and/or inequity aversion has been under debate. We investigated whether tufted capuchin monkeys are sensitive to others' reward in various experimental food sharing settings. Two monkeys faced each other. The operator monkey chose one of two food containers placed between the participants, each containing a food item for him/herself and another for the recipient. The recipient passively received either high- or low-value food depending on the operator's choice, whereas the operator obtained the same food regardless of his/her choice. The recipients were either the highest- or lowest-ranking member of the group, and the operators were middle-ranking. In Experiment 1, the operators chose the high-value food for the subordinate recipient more frequently than when there was no recipient, whereas they were indifferent in their choice for the dominant. This differentiated behavior could have been because the dominant recipient frequently ate the low-value food. In Experiment 2, we increased the difference in the value of the two food items so that both recipients would reject the low-value food. The results were the same as in Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, we placed an opaque screen in front of the recipient to examine effects of visual contact between the participants. The operators' food choice generally shifted toward providing the low-value food for the recipient. These results suggest that capuchins are clearly sensitive to others' reward and that they show other-regarding preference or a form of inequity aversion depending upon the recipients and the presence of visual contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayaka Takimoto
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan.
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Emile N, Barros M. Recognition of a 3D snake model and its 2D photographic image by captive black tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix penicillata). Anim Cogn 2009; 12:725-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-009-0234-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2008] [Revised: 04/30/2009] [Accepted: 05/01/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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