Enhanced Histone Acetylation in the Infralimbic Prefrontal Cortex is Associated with Fear Extinction

Clinical potential of epigenetic and microRNA biomarkers in PTSD

Molecular studies identifying alterations associated with PTSD have predominantly focused on candidate genes or conducted genome-wide analyses, often encountering issues with replicability. This review aims to identify robust bi-directional epigenetic and microRNA (miRNA) regulators focusing on their functional impacts on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and their utility in clinical diagnosis, whilst examining knowledge gaps in the existing research. A systematic search was conducted across multiple databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, Global Health (CABI), and PubMed, augmented by grey literature, yielding 3465 potential articles. Ultimately, 92 studies met the inclusion criteria and were analysed to pinpoint significant epigenetic changes with clinically relevant potential in PTSD. The selected studies explored histone modifications, CpG sites, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and miRNA biomarkers. Specifically, nine studies examined epigenetic markers, detailing the influence of methylation on chromatin accessibility at histone positions H3K4, H3K9, and H3K36 within a PTSD context. Seventy-three studies investigated DNA methylation, identifying 20 hypermethylated and five hypomethylated CpG islands consistently observed in PTSD participants. Nineteen studies linked 88 SNPs to PTSD, with only one SNP replicated within these studies. Furthermore, sixteen studies focused on miRNAs, with findings indicating 194 downregulated and 24 upregulated miRNAs were associated with PTSD. Although there are epigenetic mechanisms that are significantly affected by PTSD, a granular deconstruction of these mechanisms elucidates the need to incorporate more nuanced approaches to identifying the factors that contribute to PTSD. Technological advances in diagnostic tools are driving the need to integrate detailed participant characteristics, trauma type, genetic susceptibilities, and best practices for robust reporting. This comprehensive approach will be crucial for enhancing the translational potential of PTSD research for clinical application.

Epigenetic mechanisms of nicotine dependence

Smoking continues to be a leading cause of preventable disease and death worldwide. Nicotine dependence generates a lifelong propensity towards cravings and relapse, presenting an ongoing challenge for the development of treatments. Accumulating evidence supports a role for epigenetics in the development and maintenance of addiction to many drugs of abuse, however, the involvement of epigenetics in nicotine dependence is less clear. Here we review evidence that nicotine interacts with epigenetic mechanisms to enable the maintenance of nicotine-seeking across time. Research across species suggests that nicotine increases permissive histone acetylation, decreases repressive histone methylation, and modulates levels of DNA methylation and noncoding RNA expression throughout the brain. These changes are linked to the promoter regions of genes critical for learning and memory, reward processing and addiction. Pharmacological manipulation of enzymes that catalyze core epigenetic modifications regulate nicotine reward and associative learning, demonstrating a functional role of epigenetic modifications in nicotine dependence. These findings are consistent with nicotine promoting an overall permissive chromatin state at genes important for learning, memory and reward. By exploring these links through next-generation sequencing technologies, epigenetics provides a promising avenue for future interventions to treat nicotine dependence.

Monoamine Oxidase: A Potential Link in Papez Circuit to Generalized Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety is a common mental illness that affects a large number of people around the world, and its treatment is often based on the use of pharmacological substances such as benzodiazepines, serotonin, and 5-hydroxytyrosine (MAO) neurotransmitters. MAO neurotransmitters levels are deciding factors in the biological effects. This review summarizes the current understanding of the MAO system and its role in the modulation of anxiety-related brain circuits and behavior. The MAO-A polymorphisms have been implicated in the susceptibility to generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in several investigations. The 5-HT system is involved in a wide range of physiological and behavioral processes, involving anxiety, aggressiveness, stress reactions, and other elements of emotional intensity. Among these, 5-HT, NA, and DA are the traditional 5-HT neurons that govern a range of biological activities, including sleep, alertness, eating, thermoregulation, pains, emotion, and memory, as anticipated considering their broad projection distribution in distinct brain locations. The DNMTs (DNA methyltransferase) protein family, which increasingly leads a prominent role in epigenetics, is connected with lower transcriptional activity and activates DNA methylation. In this paper, we provide an overview of the current state of the art in the elucidation of the brain's complex functions in the regulation of anxiety.

The neural circuits and molecular mechanisms underlying fear dysregulation in posttraumatic stress disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a stress-associated complex and debilitating psychiatric disorder due to an imbalance of neurotransmitters in response to traumatic events or fear. PTSD is characterized by re-experiencing, avoidance behavior, hyperarousal, negative emotions, insomnia, personality changes, and memory problems following exposure to severe trauma. However, the biological mechanisms and symptomatology underlying this disorder are still largely unknown or poorly understood. Considerable evidence shows that PTSD results from a dysfunction in highly conserved brain systems involved in regulating stress, anxiety, fear, and reward circuitry. This review provides a contemporary update about PTSD, including new data from the clinical and preclinical literature on stress, PTSD, and fear memory consolidation and extinction processes. First, we present an overview of well-established laboratory models of PTSD and discuss their clinical translational value for finding various treatments for PTSD. We then highlight the research progress on the neural circuits of fear and extinction-related behavior, including the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala. We further describe different molecular mechanisms, including GABAergic, glutamatergic, cholinergic, and neurotropic signaling, responsible for the structural and functional changes during fear acquisition and fear extinction processes in PTSD.

The role of epigenetics in anxiety disorders

Anxiety disorders (ADs) are extremely common psychiatric conditions that frequently co-occur with other physical and mental disorders. The pathophysiology of ADs is multifaceted and involves intricate connections among biological elements, environmental stimuli, and psychological mechanisms. Recent discoveries have highlighted the significance of epigenetics in bridging the gap between multiple risk factors that contribute to ADs and expanding our understanding of the pathomechanisms underlying ADs. Epigenetics is the study of how changes in the environment and behavior can have an impact on gene function. Indeed, researchers have found that epigenetic mechanisms can affect how genes are activated or inactivated, as well as whether they are expressed. Such mechanisms may also affect how ADs form and are protected. That is, the bulk of pharmacological trials evaluating epigenetic treatments for the treatment of ADs have used histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi), yielding promising outcomes in both preclinical and clinical studies. This review will provide an outline of how epigenetic pathways can be used to treat ADs or lessen their risk. It will also present the findings from preclinical and clinical trials that are currently available on the use of epigenetic drugs to treat ADs.

Systems consolidation and fear memory generalisation as a potential target for trauma-related disorders

Fear memory generalisation is a central hallmark in the broad range of anxiety and trauma-related disorders. Recent findings suggest that fear generalisation is closely related to hippocampal dependency during retrieval. In this review, we describe the current understanding about memory generalisation and its potential influence in fear attenuation through pharmacological and behavioural interventions. In light of systems consolidation framework, we propose that keeping memory precision could be a key step to enhance therapeutic outcomes.

Long non-coding RNA LINC00926 regulates WNT10B signaling pathway thereby altering inflammatory gene expression in PTSD

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which frequently occurs in the aftermath of a psychologically traumatic event is characterized by heightened inflammation. People with PTSD also suffer from a number of comorbid clinical and behavioral disorders that are related to chronic inflammation. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of enhanced inflammation in PTSD can provide insights into the relationship between PTSD and associated comorbid disorders. In the current study, we investigated the role of large intervening non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs) in the regulation of inflammation in people diagnosed with PTSD. We observed that WNT ligand, WNT10B, was upregulated in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of PTSD patients. This observation was associated with higher H3K4me3 signals around WNT10B promotor in PTSD patients compared to those without PTSD. Increased H3K4me3 resulted from LINC00926, which we found to be upregulated in the PTSD sample, bringing in histone methyltransferase, MLL1, onto WNT10B promotor leading to the introduction of H3K4 trimethylation. The addition of recombinant human WNT10B to pre-activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) led to increased expression of inflammatory genes such as IFNG and IL17A, suggesting that WNT10B is involved in their upregulation. Together, our data suggested that LINC00926 interacts physically with MLL1 and thereby controls the expression of IFNG and IL17A. This is the first time a long non-coding RNA is shown to regulate the expression of WNT10B and consequently inflammation. This observation has high relevance to our understanding of disease mechanisms of PTSD and comorbidities associated with PTSD.

Molecular motor KIF3B in the prelimbic cortex constrains the consolidation of contextual fear memory

Molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the role of the prelimbic cortex in contextual fear memory remain elusive. Here we examined the kinesin family of molecular motor proteins (KIFs) in the prelimbic cortex for their role in mediating contextual fear, a form of associative memory. KIFs function as critical mediators of synaptic transmission and plasticity by their ability to modulate microtubule function and transport of gene products. However, the regulation and function of KIFs in the prelimbic cortex insofar as mediating memory consolidation is not known. We find that within one hour of contextual fear conditioning, the expression of KIF3B is upregulated in the prelimbic but not the infralimbic cortex. Importantly, lentiviral-mediated knockdown of KIF3B in the prelimbic cortex produces deficits in consolidation while reducing freezing behavior during extinction of contextual fear. We also find that the depletion of KIF3B increases spine density within prelimbic neurons. Taken together, these results illuminate a key role for KIF3B in the prelimbic cortex as far as mediating contextual fear memory.

The Molecular Biology of Susceptibility to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Highlights of Epigenetics and Epigenomics

Exposure to trauma is one of the most important and prevalent risk factors for mental and physical ill-health. Excessive or prolonged stress exposure increases the risk of a wide variety of mental and physical symptoms. However, people differ strikingly in their susceptibility to develop signs and symptoms of mental illness after traumatic stress. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating disorder affecting approximately 8% of the world’s population during their lifetime, and typically develops after exposure to a traumatic event. Despite that exposure to potentially traumatizing events occurs in a large proportion of the general population, about 80–90% of trauma-exposed individuals do not develop PTSD, suggesting an inter-individual difference in vulnerability to PTSD. While the biological mechanisms underlying this differential susceptibility are unknown, epigenetic changes have been proposed to underlie the relationship between exposure to traumatic stress and the susceptibility to develop PTSD. Epigenetic mechanisms refer to environmentally sensitive modifications to DNA and RNA molecules that regulate gene transcription without altering the genetic sequence itself. In this review, we provide an overview of various molecular biological, biochemical and physiological alterations in PTSD, focusing on changes at the genomic and epigenomic level. Finally, we will discuss how current knowledge may aid us in early detection and improved management of PTSD patients.

Infralimbic cortex controls fear memory generalization and susceptibility to extinction during consolidation

Lesioning or inactivating the infralimbic (IL) subregion of the medial prefrontal cortex before acquisition produces more generalized and extinction-resistant fear memories. However, whether and how it modulates memory specificity and extinction susceptibility while consolidation takes place is still unknown. The present study aims to investigate these questions using muscimol-induced temporary inactivation and anisomycin-induced protein synthesis inhibition in the rat IL following contextual fear conditioning. Results indicate that the IL activity immediately after acquisition, but not six hours later, controls memory generalization over a week, regardless of its strength. Such IL function depends on the context-shock pairing since muscimol induced no changes in animals exposed to immediate shocks or the conditioning context only. Animals in which the IL was inactivated during consolidation extinguished similarly to controls within the session but were unable to recall the extinction memory the following day. Noteworthy, these post-acquisition IL inactivation-induced effects were not associated with changes in anxiety, as assessed in the elevated plus-maze test. Anisomycin results indicate that the IL protein synthesis during consolidation contributes more to producing extinction-sensitive fear memories than memory specificity. Collectively, present results provide evidence for the IL's role in controlling generalization and susceptibility to extinction during fear memory consolidation.

CREB transcription in the medial prefrontal cortex regulates the formation of long-term associative recognition memory

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is known to be critical for specific forms of long-term recognition memory, however the cellular mechanisms in the mPFC that underpin memory maintenance have not been well characterized. This study examined the importance of phosphorylation of cAMP responsive element binding protein (CREB) in the mPFC for different forms of long-term recognition memory in the rat. Adenoviral transduction of the mPFC with a dominant-negative inhibitor of CREB impaired object-in-place memory following a 6 or 24 h retention delay, but no impairment was observed following delays of 5 min or 3 h. Long-term object temporal order memory and spatial temporal order memory was also impaired. In contrast, there were no impairments in novel object recognition or object location memory. These results establish, for the first time, the importance of CREB phosphorylation within the mPFC for memory of associative and temporal information crucial to recognition.

Regulation of HDAC1 and HDAC2 during consolidation and extinction of fear memory

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) regulate gene expression epigenetically through synchronized removal of acetyl groups from histones required towards memory consolidation. Moreover, dysregulated epigenetic machinery during fear or extinction learning may result in altered expression of some of these genes and result in Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In the present study, region-specific expression of Histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) and Histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) was correlated to the acetylation of histones H3 and H4 and the resultant conditioned response, in rats undergone fear and extinction learning. The neuronal activation, histone acetylation at H3/H4 and expression of HDAC1/HDAC2 in centrolateral amygdala (CeL) and centromedial amygdala (CeM) of central Amygdala (CeA) and prelimbic (PL) and infralimbic (IL) of Prefrontal cortex (PFC) were found to be associated in a differential manner following fear and extinction learning. Moreover in CeM, the main output of the fear circuitry, the level of HDAC1 was down-regulated following conditioning and up-regulated following extinction as opposed to which HDAC2 was down-regulated in CeM following conditioning but not following extinction. Furthermore, in CeL the HDAC1 was upregulated and HDAC2 was downregulated following conditioning and extinction. This has important implications in speculating of the role of HDACs in fear memory consolidation and its extinction.

Histone acetylation determines transcription of atypical protein kinases in rat neurons

It is widely accepted that memory consolidation requires de-novo transcription of memory-related genes. Epigenetic modifications, particularly histone acetylation, may facilitate gene transcription, but their potential molecular targets are poorly characterized. In the current study, we addressed the question of epigenetic control of atypical protein kinases (aPKC) that are critically involved in memory consolidation and maintenance. We examined the patterns of expression of two aPKC genes (Prkci and Prkcz) in rat cultured cortical neurons treated with histone deacetylase inhibitors. Histone hyperacetylation in the promoter region of Prkci gene elicited direct activation of transcriptional machinery, resulting in increased production of PKCλ mRNA. In parallel, histone hyperacetylation in the upstream promoter of Prkcz gene led to appearance of the corresponding PKCζ transcripts that are almost absent in the brain in resting conditions. In contrast, histone hyperacetylation in the downstream promoter of Prkcz gene was accompanied by a decreased expression of the brain-specific PKMζ products. We showed that epigenetically-triggered differential expression of PKMζ and PKCζ mRNA depended on protein synthesis. Summarizing, our results suggest that genes, encoding memory-related aPKC, may represent the molecular targets for epigenetic regulation through posttranslational histone modifications.

A Review of Epigenetics of PTSD in Comorbid Psychiatric Conditions

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an acquired psychiatric disorder with functionally impairing physiological and psychological symptoms following a traumatic exposure. Genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors act together to determine both an individual's susceptibility to PTSD and its clinical phenotype. In this literature review, we briefly review the candidate genes that have been implicated in the development and severity of the PTSD phenotype. We discuss the importance of the epigenetic regulation of these candidate genes. We review the general epigenetic mechanisms that are currently understood, with examples of each in the PTSD phenotype. Our focus then turns to studies that have examined PTSD in the context of comorbid psychiatric disorders or associated social and behavioral stressors. We examine the epigenetic variation in cases or models of PTSD with comorbid depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, and substance use disorders. We reviewed the literature that has explored epigenetic regulation in PTSD in adverse childhood experiences and suicide phenotypes. Finally, we review some of the information available from studies of the transgenerational transmission of epigenetic variation in maternal cases of PTSD. We discuss areas pertinent for future study to further elucidate the complex interactions between epigenetic modifications and this complex psychiatric disorder.

Decreased level of histone acetylation in the infralimbic prefrontal cortex following immediate extinction may result in deficit of extinction memory

In the last few decades, there has been exponential increase in studies aiming to trace the molecular mechanism of fear extinction with a hope to minimize the return of fear after exposure therapy required for operational treatment of anxiety disorders. The present study explored how the timing of extinction training after developing a specific fear, affects the consequent return of the extinguished fear and the role of histone acetylation in controlling the circuitry, thereof. It was found that rats undergone extinction training 10 min. after fear memory acquisition (Immediate Extinction) had deficits in retention of extinction memory as compared to one which underwent extinction 24 h after fear acquisition (Delayed Extinction). When the differences were sorted at the circuitry level the relative activity of the infralimbic prefrontal cortex (IL) to prelimbic cortex (PL) was found to be lower in the immediate extinction group as compared to the delayed extinction group as evidenced by the c-fos expression in the mPFC of these groups. Further investigation showed that acetylation of histone H3/H4 along with the levels of CREB binding protein (CBP) which is a histone acetyltransferase (HAT), was associated with neuronal activation and was significantly lower in the IL of the immediate extinction group than the delayed extinction group. In conclusion, the observed deficits in the immediate extinction group may be the result of compromised activation of IL, which in turn may be associated with changes in histone acetylation.