Hepatogenous diabetes in cirrhosis is related to portal pressure and variceal hemorrhage

Effect of diabetes on mortality and liver transplantation in alcoholic liver cirrhotic patients with acute decompensation

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have investigated the influence of diabetes on alcoholic liver cirrhosis patients, leaving its impact unclear. Thus, we conducted a study to reveal the association of diabetes and clinical outcomes of such patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We prospectively collected data from multicenter pertaining to 965 patients diagnosed with alcoholic liver cirrhosis, all of whom were admitted due to acute decompensation between 2015 and 2019. Risk of major precipitating factors and incidences of death or liver transplantation in patients with and without diabetes was comparatively assessed. Propensity score (PS) matching was performed at a 1:2 ratio for accurate comparisons.

RESULTS

The mean age was 53.4 years, and 81.0% of the patients were male. Diabetes was prevalent in 23.6% of the cohort and was positively correlated with hepatic encephalopathy and upper gastrointestinal bleeding, although not statistically significant. During a median follow-up of 903.5 person-years (PYs), 64 patients with and 171 without diabetes died or underwent liver transplantation, with annual incidence of 33.6/100 PYs and 24.0/100 PYs, respectively. In the PS-matched cohort, the incidence of death or liver transplantation was 36.8/100 PYs and 18.6/100 PYs in the diabetes and matched control group, respectively. After adjusting for various factors, coexisting diabetes significantly heightened the risk of death or liver transplantation in the short and long term, in addition to prolonged prothrombin time, low serum albumin, elevated total bilirubin and creatinine, and decreased serum sodium levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetes increases the risk of death or liver transplantation in patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis.

Unraveling the mechanisms of hepatogenous diabetes and its therapeutic perspectives

The review focused mainly on the pathogenesis of hepatogenous diabetes (HD) in liver cirrhosis (LC). This review reveals parallels between the mechanisms of metabolic dysfunction observed in LC and type II diabetes (T2DM), suggesting a shared pathway leading to HD. It underscores the role of insulin in HD pathogenesis, highlighting key factors such as insulin signaling, glucose metabolism, insulin resistance (IR), and the influence of adipocytes. Furthermore, the impact of adipose tissue accumulation, fatty acid metabolism, and pro-inflammatory cytokines like Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) on IR are discussed in the context of HD. Altered signaling pathways, disruptions in the endocrine system, liver inflammation, changes in muscle mass and composition, and modifications to the gut microbiota collectively contribute to the complex interplay linking cirrhosis and HD. This study highlights how important it is to identify and treat this complex condition in cirrhotic patients by thoroughly analyzing the link between cirrhosis, IR, and HD. It also emphasizes the vitality of targeted interventions. Cellular and molecular investigations into IR have revealed potential therapeutic targets for managing and preventing HD.

Hepatogenous Diabetes as Compared to Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus and Non-diabetes in Patients With Liver Cirrhosis: Magnitude, Characteristics, and Implications

AIM

Hepatogenous diabetes (HD) is frequently underestimated among cirrhosis patients. The current study assessed the magnitude, clinical characteristics, and implications of HD in cirrhosis patients as compared to the patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and non-diabetes (ND) cirrhosis.

METHODS

In a prospective observational study, 338 consecutive eligible cirrhosis patients were screened for diabetes mellitus. A 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was used to detect HD. The clinical characteristics, complications, and outcomes were ascertained and compared amongst HD, T2DM, and ND patients.

RESULTS

In the final study cohort of 316 patients, the proportion of HD, T2DM, and ND was 22.5% (n = 71), 26.3% (n = 83), and 51.3% (n = 162), respectively. HD was the predominant form of diabetes (68.9%) in Child-Pugh class-C cirrhosis. The majority (73%) of HD patients had abnormal OGTT without fasting hyperglycaemia. A lower cut-off of 98.5 mg/dl for fasting blood glucose had a modest sensitivity (72%) and specificity (75%) for predicting HD. In comparison to T2DM patients, HD patients were younger, leaner, and had more advanced cirrhosis. In comparison to ND patients, HD patients were leaner but had higher glycemic indices, serum cholesterol, and arterial ammonia levels. During a median follow-up period of 12 (03-21) months, the frequency of hepatic encephalopathy and variceal haemorrhage were higher in HD and T2DM patients compared to that in the ND group.

CONCLUSIONS

HD is prevalent in about one fifth of cirrhosis patients. It differs from T2DM and ND in a number of ways, and has association with complications of cirrhosis.

Burden of Portal Hypertension Complications Is Greater in Liver Transplant Wait-Listed Registrants with End-Stage Liver Disease and Type 2 Diabetes

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in patients with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) awaiting liver transplantation (LT) remains poorly defined. The objective of the present study is to evaluate the relationship between T2DM and clinical outcomes among patients with LT waitlist registrants. We hypothesize that the presence of T2DM will be associated with worse clinical outcomes.

METHODS

593 patients adult (age 18 years or older) who were registered for LT between 1/2010 and 1/2017 were included in this retrospective analysis. The impact of T2DM on liver-associated clinical events (LACE), survival, hospitalizations, need for renal replacement therapy, and likelihood of receiving LT were evaluated over a 12-month period. LACE was defined as variceal hemorrhage, hepatic encephalopathy, and ascites. Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analysis were used to determine the association between T2DM and clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

The baseline prevalence of T2DM was 32% (n = 191) and patients with T2DM were more likely to have esophageal varices (61% vs. 47%, p = 0.002) and history of variceal hemorrhage (23% vs. 16%, p = 0.03). The presence of T2DM was associated with increased risk of incident ascites (HR 1.91, 95% CI 1.11, 3.28, p = 0.019). Patients with T2DM were more likely to require hospitalizations (56% vs. 49%, p = 0.06), hospitalized with portal hypertension-related complications (22% vs. 14%; p = 0.026), and require renal replacement therapy during their hospitalization. Patients with T2DM were less likely to receive a LT (37% vs. 45%; p = 0.03). Regarding MELD labs, patients with T2DM had significantly lower bilirubin at each follow-up; however, no differences in INR and creatinine were noted.

CONCLUSION

Patients with T2DM are at increased risk of clinical outcomes. This risk is not captured in MELD score, which may potentially negatively affect their likelihood of receiving LT.

Hepatogenous diabetes: Knowledge, evidence, and skepticism

The diabetogenic potential of liver cirrhosis (LC) has been known for a long time, and the name "hepatogenous diabetes" (HD) was coined in 1906 to define the condition. Diabetes mellitus (DM) that develops as a consequence of LC is referred to as HD. In patients with LC, the prevalence rates of HD have been reported to vary from 21% to 57%. The pathophysiological basis of HD seems to involve insulin resistance (IR) and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. The neurohormonal changes, endotoxemia, and chronic inflammation of LC initially create IR; however, the toxic effects eventually lead to β-cell dysfunction, which marks the transition from impaired glucose tolerance to HD. In addition, a number of factors, including sarcopenia, sarcopenic obesity, gut dysbiosis, and hyperammonemia, have recently been linked to impaired glucose metabolism in LC. DM is associated with complications and poor outcomes in patients with LC, although the individual impact of each type 2 DM and HD is unknown due to a lack of categorization of diabetes in most published research. In fact, there is much skepticism within scientific organizations over the recognition of HD as a separate disease and a consequence of LC. Currently, T2DM and HD are being treated in a similar manner although no standardized guidelines are available. The different pathophysiological basis of HD may have an impact on treatment options. This review article discusses the existence of HD as a distinct entity with high prevalence rates, a strong pathophysiological basis, clinical and therapeutic implications, as well as widespread skepticism and knowledge gaps.

Der hepatogene Diabetes – aktueller Stand der Diagnostik und Therapie

Hintergrund

Patienten mit Leberzirrhose entwickeln häufig Störungen des Glukosemetabolismus wie Glukoseintoleranz oder einen hepatogenen Diabetes, welche neben der hepatozellulären Funktionseinschränkung durch die ausgeprägte Insulinresistenz als Folge der chronischen Lebererkrankung verursacht sind.

Diskussion

Empfehlungen mit Leitliniencharakter zur Diagnostik und Therapie des hepatogenen Diabetes fehlen bislang. Im Hinblick auf basistherapeutische Maßnahmen sollte eine ausreichende Deckung des Energie- und Proteinstoffwechsels gewährleistet sein, da ein Großteil der Zirrhosepatienten mangelernährt ist. Bei der medikamentösen Behandlung des hepatogenen Diabetes muss auf die erhöhte Hypoglykämiegefährdung geachtet werden. Aufgrund der Nebenwirkungen sind Biguanide sowie PPAR-gamma-Liganden bei Leberzirrhose kontraindiziert. Geeignete orale Antidiabetika sind insbesondere Sulfonylharnstoffanaloga und kurz wirksame Sulfonylharnstoffe. Wenn eine suffiziente Diabeteseinstellung mit oralen Antidiabetika nicht gelingt, sollte eine prandiale Insulintherapie mit Insulinen von kurzer Wirkdauer oder kurz wirksamen Insulinanaloga eingesetzt werden.

Schlussfolgerung

Die Optimierung einer diabetischen Stoffwechsellage hat neben der Vermeidung typischer diabetischer Spätkomplikationen eine wichtige Bedeutung für die Vermeidung und Reduzierung von Zirrhose-assoziierten Komplikationen wie z. B. gastrointestinalen Blutungsereignissen, hepatischer Enzephalopathie oder dem Auftreten eines hepatozellulären Karzinoms.

Clinical implications of diabetes in chronic liver disease: Diagnosis, outcomes and management, current and future perspectives

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is common in liver cirrhosis (LC). The pathophysiological association is bidirectional. DM is a risk factor of LC and LC is a diabetogenic condition. In the recent years, research on different aspects of the association DM and LC has been intensified. Nevertheless, it has been insufficient and still exist many gaps. The aims of this review are: (1) To discuss the latest understandings of the association of DM and LC in order to identify the strategies of early diagnosis; (2) To evaluate the impact of DM on outcomes of LC patients; and (3) To select the most adequate management benefiting the two conditions. Literature searches were conducted using PubMed, Ovid and Scopus engines for DM and LC, diagnosis, outcomes and management. The authors also provided insight from their own published experience. Based on the published studies, two types of DM associated with LC have emerged: Type 2 DM (T2DM) and hepatogenous diabetes (HD). High-quality evidences have determined that T2DM or HD significantly increase complications and death pre and post-liver transplantation. HD has been poorly studied and has not been recognized as a complication of LC. The management of DM in LC patients continues to be difficult and should be based on drug pharmacokinetics and the degree of liver failure. In conclusion, the clinical impact of DM in outcomes of LC patients has been the most studied item recently. Nevertheless many gaps still exist particularly in the management. These most important gaps were highlighted in order to propose future lines for research.

High Albumin Level Is Associated With Regression of Glucose Metabolism Disorders Upon Resolution of Acute Liver Inflammation in Hepatitis B-Related Cirrhosis

Background and Aim

To investigate the short-term dynamic changes and the factors associated with regression of glucose metabolism disorders in patients with hepatitis flare of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection.

Methods

In this study, 118 patients with severe hepatitis flare of chronic HBV infection were prospectively studied. Oral glucose tolerance test was performed on admission and during follow-up to evaluate dynamic changes in glucose metabolism disorders. The factors associated with regression of glucose metabolism disorders were identified using univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.

Results

The prevalence of diabetes was significantly higher in 70 (47.1%) patients with liver cirrhosis than that in 48 (16.8%) patients without liver cirrhosis. The prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance in patients with liver cirrhosis (35.7%) was significantly lower than that in patients without liver cirrhosis (47.8%). After a follow-up of 20.0 ± 18.7 days, 28 of 31 (90.3%) patients without liver cirrhosis experienced regression of glucose metabolism disorders. Additionally, 30 (54.5%) patients with liver cirrhosis experienced regression of glucose metabolism disorders after 42.0 ± 36.2 days. In patients with liver cirrhosis, those with regression of glucose metabolism disorders had significantly higher levels of homeostasis model assessment-β-cell function, albumin (ALB), and a significantly lower level of fibrosis-4 score. ALB was identified as an independent factor associated with the regression of glucose metabolism disorders in patients with liver cirrhosis.

Conclusion

Severe acute liver inflammation aggravates glucose metabolism disorders in patients with hepatitis B-related liver cirrhosis and high ALB level is associated with regression of glucose metabolism disorders upon resolution of acute liver inflammation.

Hepatogenous Diabetes - A Report from Central India

Background/Objectives

Cirrhosis of liver is associated with loss of liver function, portal hypertension, and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction leading to hepatogenous diabetes (HD). Often HD is an underestimated and understudied problem, particularly in the Indian subcontinent, where the prevalence of both Chronic liver disease (CLD) and diabetes is high. Hence this study was planned to highlight the prevalence of HD and its association with the severity of cirrhosis.

Methods

A total of 121 cirrhotic patients without a history of diabetes were included in this prospective cross-sectional study. Seventy five g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was done in all patients. Fasting serum insulin levels were done to calculate insulin resistance (IR) using homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR). Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy was done to detect varices. Patients were divided into HD group and non-HD group for comparison of results.

Results

HD was seen in 52 (42.98%) patients; among them, 63.4% did not show evidence of HD by fasting plasma glucose (FPG) levels. Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) was seen in 58 (47.93%) patients. Compared with the non-HD group, the HD group had significantly higher model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) score (P = 0.038), HOMA-IR (P < 0.001), incidence of large varices (P < 0.001) and variceal bleeding (P < 0.001). A statistically significant association was noted between HD and Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Patients with cirrhosis had a high prevalence of IGT, IR, and HD. The presence of HD is well associated with the severity of cirrhosis in the form of higher MELD score (>15), CTP score (>10), higher bilirubin levels, large varices, bleeding varices, and HCC. FPG levels and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) cannot be relied upon, and OGTT aids in the unmasking of HD in these patients.

Hepatogenous Diabetes: A Primer

As liver is one of the primary organs involved in glucose homeostasis, it is not surprising that patients with liver dysfunction in chronic liver disease usually develop impaired glucose tolerance and subsequently overt diabetes later in their natural course. Diabetes that develops after the onset of cirrhosis of liver is usually referred to as hepatogenous diabetes (HD). It is an underrecognized and a hallmark endocrinological event in chronic liver disease. HD is associated with a higher risk of developing hepatic decompensations, such as ascites, variceal bleeding, hepatic encephalopathy, renal dysfunction, refractory ascites, and hepatocellular carcinoma along with reduced survival rates than normoglycemic patients with cirrhosis of liver. It is quite different from type 2 diabetes mellitus with the absence of classical risk factors, dissimilar laboratory profiles, and decreased incidence of microvascular complications. Furthermore, the management of patients with HD is challenging because of altered pharmacokinetics of most antidiabetic drugs and increased risk of hypoglycemia and other adverse effects. Hence, a clear understanding of the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical implications, laboratory diagnosis, and management of HD is essential for both hepatologists as well as endocrinologists, which is narrated briefly in this review.

Pancreas stiffness in liver cirrhosis is an indicator of insulin secretion caused by portal hypertension and pancreatic congestion

AIM

Portal hypertension induces pancreatic congestion and impaired insulin secretion in patients with liver cirrhosis (LC). However, its mechanism is unclear, with no established noninvasive imaging method for the evaluation of its pathogeneses. The present study focused on pancreas stiffness, as assessed by shear wave elastography (SWE), and examined its association with portal hypertension and insulin secretion.

METHODS

Shear wave elastography and contrast-enhanced ultrasonography were utilized to evaluate pancreas stiffness and congestion, respectively. A glucagon challenge test was used for insulin secretion assessment. Furthermore, rat models of carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄ )-induced LC and portal hypertension were used to identify the direct effects of pancreatic congestion. Immunohistochemistry staining of the pancreas was carried out on human autopsy samples.

RESULTS

Pancreas stiffness measured by SWE was higher in patients with LC than in controls and showed significant correlation with pancreatic congestion. The glucagon challenge test indicated a lower value for the change in C-peptide immunoreactivity in the LC group, which was inversely correlated with pancreas stiffness and congestion. Additionally, portal hypertension and insulin secretion dysfunction were confirmed in CCl₄ rat models. Autopsy of human samples revealed congestive and fibrotic changes in the pancreas and the relationship between insulin secretion and their factors in patients with LC.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with LC, pancreas stiffness measured by SWE could be a potential noninvasive test for evaluating pancreatic congestion and fibrosis due to portal hypertension. Moreover, it was associated with impaired insulin secretion, and could aid in guiding the treatment for hepatogenous diabetes.

Wilson’s Disease with Hepatogenous Diabetes: A Case Report

Introduction: Wilson’s disease (WD) is a hereditary autosomal recessive disorder caused by pathogenic variants within the ATP7B gene. Early diagnosis of WD is important but it can be difficult in pediatric clinical practice because of varied presentations. Fortunately, with the development of genetic testing, molecular analysis of the ATP7B gene is helpful in the early diagnosis of WD. Hepatogenous diabetes (HD) is defined as a state of impaired glucose regulation caused by chronic liver disease. Here we report a child with WD with HD. Case Presentation: A 4-year-old girl was admitted to our hospital with diarrhea for two months. On admission, urine glucose was 4+, fasting glucose was 2.6 mmol/L, and postprandial blood glucose was 7.2 mmol/L. Further clinical manifestations and laboratory tests showed coagulation dysfunction, hemolytic anemia, and cirrhosis. After admission, she developed hepatic encephalopathy. Significant abnormal glucose metabolism was later detected, but by then, hypoglycemic convulsions had taken place. The final diagnosis of WD was confirmed by detection of mutations in the ATP7B gene. Genetic sequencing revealed compound heterozygous mutations in ATP7B, including c.2975C>T, p.Pro992Leu and c.3809A>G, p.Asn1270Ser. On day 40 of admission, the patient underwent successful orthotopic liver transplantation. Her liver function, blood glucose levels, and coagulation test results returned to normal one month after the liver transplantation. The symptom of diarrhea was also relieved after surgery. Her abnormal glucose level in hospital was considered to be HD. Conclusions: Blood glucose levels must be carefully monitored in Wilson’s disease. Moreover, genetic sequencing provides an accurate and minimally invasive diagnostic tool for WD.

Association between Liver Cirrhosis and Diabetes Mellitus: A Review on Hepatic Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Liver cirrhosis (LC) is largely associated with diabetes mellitus (DM). More than 80% of patients with LC manifest glucose intolerance and about 30% have type 2 DM. A particular and yet unrecognized entity is hepatogenous diabetes (HD), defined as impaired glucose regulation caused by altered liver function following LC. Numerous studies have shown that DM could negatively influence liver-related outcomes.

AIM

We aimed to investigate whether patients with LC and DM are at higher risk for hepatic encephalopathy (HE), variceal hemorrhage (VH), infections and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The impact of DM on liver transplant (LT) outcomes was also addressed.

METHODS

Literature search was performed in PubMed, Ovid, and Elsevier databases. Population-based observational studies reporting liver outcomes in patients with LC were included.

RESULTS

Diabetics are at higher risk for HE, including post-transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt HE. DM also increases the risk of VH and contributes to elevated portal pressure and variceal re-bleeding, while uncontrolled DM is associated with increased risk of bacterial infections. DM also increases the risk of HCC and contributes to adverse LT outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with DM and LC may benefit from close follow-up in order to reduce readmissions and mortality. Due to the heterogeneity of available research, prospective multicenter clinical trials are needed to further validate these findings.

Cirrhosis and insulin resistance: current knowledge, pathophysiological mechanisms, complications and potential treatments

End-stage chronic liver diseases are often associated with insulin resistance (IR) and diabetes mellitus (DM). Indeed, to quantify insulin sensitivity the euglycemic clamp technique was utilized, allowing the following to be stated: in small groups of patients, an IR in almost all cirrhotic patients can be observed, compared with a control group. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that IR in cirrhosis is linked to a decreased peripheral (muscle) glucose uptake rather than an increased liver glucose production. The homoeostasis model of IR (HOMA-IR) technique, devised only later, was then exploited to assess this same phenomenon in a larger sample population. The research established that even in patients with preserved liver function, cirrhosis is associated with significant alterations in glucose homoeostasis levels. The purpose of the present paper is to present the current research around the affiliation of cirrhosis and IR, discuss potential mechanisms explaining the association between cirrhosis and IR (i.e. endocrine perturbation, liver inflammation, altered muscle mass and composition, altered gut microbiota and permeability), complications that can arise as well as treatment options, through a critical review of the literature surrounding this subject. This research will also be investigating the beneficial impact, if there is any, of identifying and curing IR in patients with cirrhosis.

Different Hepatitis C Virus Infection Statuses Show a Significant Risk of Developing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Network Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The role of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection statuses in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has not been completely understood.

AIM

To evaluate the prevalence of T2DM in patients with different HCV infection statuses.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic study on T2DM risk in five types of individuals with different HCV infection statuses: non-HCV controls, HCV-cleared patients, chronic HCV patients without cirrhosis, patients with HCV cirrhosis and patients with decompensated HCV cirrhosis. Studies published from 2010 to 2019 were selected. Both pairwise and network meta-analyses were employed to compare the T2DM risk among patients with different HCV infection statuses.

RESULTS

The pairwise meta-analysis showed that non-HCV (OR = 0.60, 95% CI [0.47-0.78]) had a lower risk of T2DM compared with CHC, while cirrhosis had a significant higher risk (OR = 1.90, 95% CI [1.60-2.26]). Network meta-analysis further demonstrated patients with HCV infection were at a significantly higher risk of T2DM than those without HCV infection or with HCV clearance, while decompensated cirrhosis had a significant higher T2DM risk than non-HCV (OR = 3.84, 95% CI [2.01-7.34]), patients with HCV clearance (OR = 3.17, 95% CI [1.49-6.73]), and CHC patients (OR = 2.21, 95% CI [1.24-3.94]).

CONCLUSIONS

HCV infection is a significant risk factor for developing T2DM. CHC, cirrhosis, and decompensated cirrhosis contribute to an increasingly greater risk of T2DM, but HCV clearance spontaneously or through clinical treatment may immediately reduce the risk of the onset and development of T2DM.

Insulin/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio: A newly-discovered predictor of esophageal varices in patients with hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis in the absence of diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Insulin resistance (IR) is closely linked with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) and its complications, particularly hepatic fibrosis. The aim of the present study was to investigate some biochemical markers that are potentially related to IR as predictors of esophageal varices (EV) in patients with compensated HCV cirrhosis who do not have diabetes or metabolic syndrome.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred subjects without diabetes with compensated HCV-related cirrhosis who did not fulfill the diagnostic criteria of metabolic syndrome were subjected to clinical, laboratory, ultrasonographic, and endoscopic assessments.

RESULTS

EV were evident in 73 patients with lower platelet counts and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels. On the contrary, the fasting values of both insulin and glucose, the homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) score, and the bipolar diameter of the spleen of patients with EV were higher than those of other patients who were varices-free. Multivariate analysis confirmed insulin/HDL-C ratio (P=0.01) and HOMA-IR score (P=0.039) as predictors for the presence of varices. The best cut-off values above which the risk of the latter occurrence increased were 0.147 (sensitivity 89%) and 2.24 (sensitivity 72.6%) for both predictors, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The present study recorded two valid predictors of HCV-related EV: HOMA-IR score and insulin/HDL-C ratio. The latter is more sensitive and is likely more convenient in the case of individuals without diabetes. The validity of two IR-related predictors in the absence of metabolic syndrome confirmed the suggestion that the mechanism of IR-related HCV is different from that of the traditional metabolic syndrome.

Hepatogenous Diabetes: An Underestimated Problem of Liver Cirrhosis

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus in cirrhotic patients is much higher than that in the general population. Two types of diabetes are usually seen in patients with cirrhosis: type 2 diabetes mellitus and hepatogenous diabetes (HD). The HD is an acquired condition which is believed to be caused by impaired insulin clearance and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction in cirrhotic patients. Increased levels of advanced glycation end products and hypoxia-inducible factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis of HD. Patients with HD typically present with normal fasting glucose, but abnormal response to an oral glucose tolerance test, which is required for the diagnosis. Because the level of glycated hemoglobin is often falsely low in patients with cirrhosis, it does not help in the early diagnosis of HD. HD is associated with an increased rate of complications of cirrhosis, decreased 5-year survival rate, and increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. The major complications of cirrhosis associated with HD include hepatic encephalopathy (HE), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, sepsis, variceal hemorrhage, and renal dysfunction. Treatment of HD may be difficult as many antihyperglycemic therapies are associated with increased risk of complications in cirrhosis, particularly hypoglycemia. Biguanides, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, and new medications such as dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors appear to be safe in patients with cirrhosis. Though insulin therapy is currently advocated, requirement of insulin is variable and is difficult to predict. The liver transplantation usually results in reversal of HD. This review article provides an overview of magnitude, patients' characteristics, clinical implications, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnosis, and management of HD.

The prevalence and association of chronic kidney disease and diabetes in liver cirrhosis using different estimated glomerular filtration rate equation

Background

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) in cirrhosis is one of the dreaded complications associated with a steep rise in mortality and morbidity, including diabetes. There are limited data on the prevalence of CKD and the association with diabetes in outpatients with cirrhosis.

Methodology

This is a cross-sectional study of 7,440 adult liver cirrhosis patients enrolled from August 2001 to April 2010 in a medical center. Case control matching by age and sex with 1,967 pairs, and conditional logistic regression for odds of diabetes was analyzed using adjusted model.

Results

CKD was present in 46.0%, 45.7% and 45.6% of the study population using the MDRD-6, CKD-EPI and MDRD-4 estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) equations, respectively. Using a conditional logistic regression model after adjusting for other risk factors, odds for diabetes increased significantly compared with non-CKD in CKD stage 3 to 5 (stage 3~5) based on MDRD-6–adjusted model, ORs were: stage 3~5, 2.34 (95% CI, 1.78-3.01); MDRD-4–adjusted model, ORs were: stage 3~5, 8.51 (95% CI, 5.63-11.4); CKD-EPI–adjusted model, ORs were: stage 3~5, 8.61 (95% CI, 5.13-13.9).

Conclusion

In cirrhosis patients, prevalence of diabetes was higher in patients with advanced stage of CKD. For patients with cirrhosis, patients with CKD stages 3~5 defined by MDRD-4, MDRD-6, and CKD-EPI eGFR equations had increased risk for diabetes. More severe cirrhosis, indicated by the Child-Turcott-Pugh classification was also accompanied by an increased risk for diabetes.

Salvianolate Reduces Glucose Metabolism Disorders in Dimethylnitrosamine-Induced Cirrhotic Rats

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the preventive effect of salvianolate (Sal B) on glucose metabolism disorders of dimethylnitrosamine (DMN)-induced cirrhotic rats.

METHODS

Fifty-five Wistar rats were randomly divided into a control group (n=10) and a cirrhotic group (n=45) according to a random number table. Liver cirrhosis was induced by intraperitoneal administration of DMN. The cirrhotic rats were divided into model, Sal B and metformin groups (n=15), respectively. Rats in the model group were given saline, two treatment groups were given Sal B (50 mg/kg), metformin (150 mg/kg) respectively for 28 consecutive days, while rats in the control group were injected 0.9% saline with same volume of vehicle. Body weight was measured everyday. Insulin sensitivity was determined by euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp. Organ index, glucose tolerance test (OGTT), and fasting plasma glucose (FPG), fasting insulin (FINS), hepatic glycogen, hydroxyproline (HYP) and liver function were detected at the end of the treatment. Area under the curve (AUC) for OGTT was calculated. Liver and pancreas histology were determined by histopathological examination with hematoxylin and eosin staining (HE), Sirius Red staining and Masson's trichrome staining, respectively. Hepatic expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen (Col I) were evaluated by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

Compared with the model group, Sal B significantly increased body and liver weight, liver-body ratio, glucose infusion rate (GIR), FPG, FINS levels and hepatic glycogen at the end of administration (P<0.05 or P<0.01). Meanwhile, Sal B significantly decreased AUC for OGTT, spleen weight, spleen-body ratio, aminotransferase and HYP level (P<0.05 or P<0.01). Sal B was also effective in alleviating necrosis of liver tissue, suppressing fibrosis progression and inhibiting the expression of α-SMA and Col I in liver. Compared with the metformin group, Sal B had advantages in ameliorating FPG, hepatic glycogen, spleen weight, organ index, liver function and cirrhosis (P<0.05). Metformin increased insulin sensitivity more potently than Sal B (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Sal B could improve glucose metabolism in cirrhotic rats by protecting hepatic glycogen reserve, increasing insulin sensitivity, and alleviating pancreatic morphology abnormalities. Sal B was clinically potential in preventing glucose metabolism anomalies accompanied with cirrhosis.

Cirrhosis of Liver and Diabetes Mellitus: The Diabolic Duo?

Introduction

Cirrhosis of the liver and diabetes mellitus are two chronic illnesses with significant impact on the quality of life. Studies from different part of the world have shown the combination to be associated with higher incidence of complications of cirrhosis and reduced survival. However, data on the impact of pre-cirrhotic and post-cirrhotic diabetes on cirrhosis is minimal.

Aim

The aim of the study was to determine the complications of cirrhosis patients with and without co-existent DM and to compare the relation between cirrhosis patients with antecedent DM and hepatogenous DM.

Materials and Methods

The present prospective study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital in Kerala, India, over a period of three years. Cirrhosis patients with and without diabetes, along with subcategorization as antecedent and hepatogenous diabetes, were studied for various complications and outcome including death. Chi-square and Mann-whitney tests were used for comparing data.

Results

Patients with cirrhosis and diabetes had higher incidence of gall stones (27.6% versus 13.2%; p=0.008) and urinary infection (29.3% versus 7.5%; p=<0.001). Incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma and mortality were similar between the groups. Patients with antecedent diabetes and hepatogenous diabetes were similar with respect to complications and mortality. Child-Turcotte-Pugh (CTP) score, Model for End stage Liver Disease (MELD) score, urinary tract and respiratory infections and duration of cirrhosis were independent predictors of mortality in patients with cirrhosis.

Conclusion

Coexistent diabetes mellitus increases the incidence of complications and hospitalizations in cirrhosis patients but without impact on mortality rates. There is no significant morbidity or mortality difference between cirrhotics with antecedent diabetes and hepatogenous diabetes.

Hepatogenous diabetes: Is it time to separate it from type 2 diabetes?

By definition, hepatogenous diabetes is directly caused by loss of liver function, implying that it develops after cirrhosis onset. Therefore, it should be distinguished from type 2 diabetes developing before cirrhosis onset, in which specific causes of liver disease play a major role, in addition to traditional risk factors. Currently, although hepatogenous diabetes shows distinct pathophysiological and clinical features, it is not considered as an autonomous entity. Recent evidence suggests that the failing liver exerts an independent "toxic" effect on pancreatic islets resulting in β-cell dysfunction. Moreover, patients with hepatogenous diabetes usually present with normal fasting glucose and haemoglobin A_1c levels and abnormal response to an oral glucose tolerance test, which is therefore required for diagnosis. This article discusses the need to separate hepatogenous diabetes from type 2 diabetes occurring in subjects with chronic liver disease and to identify individuals suffering from this condition for prognostic and therapeutic purposes.

Diagnosis and Clinical Implications of Diabetes in Liver Cirrhosis: A Focus on the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test

The liver and skeletal muscles are responsible for maintaining glucose metabolism. As chronic liver disease progresses to cirrhosis, the loss of liver function is exacerbated and leads to the deterioration of skeletal muscle. Consequently, impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and insulin resistance are often observed in patients with liver cirrhosis. Early stage cirrhosis with hepatogenous diabetes is characterized by marked postprandial hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. Generally, it is possible to underestimate IGT when using either the conventional fasting plasma glucose (FPG) criterion or hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels despite their status as the gold standard for diagnosing diabetes. The number of cirrhotic patients with diabetes tends to be underestimated because many of these patients show lower FPG levels or HbA1c, which masks their IGT. In such cases, the oral glucose tolerance test is recommended to evaluate patients with suspected postprandial hyperglycemia who present with a normal FPG. Moreover, in addition to the Child-Pugh score, the early detection of diabetes may be a useful prognostic marker for patients with liver cirrhosis.

Interrelationship between insulin resistance and portal haemodynamic abnormality in cirrhosis

Background: There are only limited data regarding the effect of impaired portal circulation on the glucose metabolism. The study prospectively examined the interrelationship between insulin resistance (IR) and portal haemodynamic abnormality in cirrhosis. Methods: There were 53 cirrhosis patients (61.6 ± 13.0 years) all presenting gastroesophageal varices. Portal haemodynamics by both hepatic venous catheterisation and Doppler ultrasound were examined with respect to the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA)-IR and HOMA2-IR. The IR was defined by HOMA-IR > 3.0 or HOMA2-IR > 2.0. Results: Forty-two patients (79.2%) had collateral vessels, 38 with left gastric vein, 12 with short/posterior gastric vein, 9 with splenorenal shunt, and 3 with inferior mesenteric vein. Multivariate analysis provided significant factors; wedged hepatic venous pressure (HR1.183, 95% CI 1.012-1.383, p=0.035) for HOMA-IR > 3.0, body mass index for HOMA2-IR > 2.0 (HR1.490, 95% CI 1.176-1.888, p=0.001), and collateral flow volume for both HOMA-IR > 3.0 (HR1.007, 95% CI 1.001-1.014, p=0.015) and HOMA2-IR > 2.0 (HR 1.007, 95% CI 1.002-1.013, p=0.009). The best cut-off value of collateral flow volume was 165 ml/min for detecting the HOMA-IR > 3.0 showing area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) 0.688 (Odds ratio, 5.33) with sensitivity 70% and specificity 69.6%, and was 165 ml/min for detecting median value of HOMA2-IR > 2.0 showing AUROC 0.698 (odds ratio, 5.7) with sensitivity 75% and specificity 65.5%. Conclusion: There is a close linkage between the IR and impaired portal haemodynamics presented by the collateral development, suggesting the underlying pathogenesis of portal hypertension in cirrhosis patients.

Hepatogenous diabetes: Is it a neglected condition in chronic liver disease?

Diabetes mellitus (DM) that occurs because of chronic liver disease (CLD) is known as hepatogenous diabetes (HD). Although the association of diabetes and liver cirrhosis was described forty years ago, it was scarcely studied for long time. Patients suffering from this condition have low frequency of risk factors of type 2 DM. Its incidence is higher in CLD of viral, alcoholic and cryptogenic etiology. Its pathophysiology relates to liver damage, pancreatic dysfunction, interactions between hepatitis C virus (HCV) and glucose metabolism mechanisms and genetic susceptibility. It associates with increased rate of liver complications and hepatocellular carcinoma, and decreased 5-year survival rate. It reduces sustained virological response in HCV infected patients. In spite of these evidences, the American Diabetes Association does not recognize HD. In addition, the impact of glucose control on clinical outcomes of patients has not been evaluated. Treatment of diabetes may be difficult due to liver insufficiency and hepatotoxicity of antidiabetic drugs. Notwithstanding, no therapeutic guidelines have been implemented up to date. In this editorial, authors discuss the reasons why they think that HD may be a neglected pathological condition and call attention to the necessity for more clinical research on different fields of this disease.

Impaired glucose metabolism increases risk of hepatic decompensation and death in patients with compensated hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis

BACKGROUND

Glucose metabolism abnormalities frequently coexist with liver cirrhosis; however, the impact of these on liver-related outcomes has not been fully investigated.

AIMS

We examined the influence of glucose abnormalities on overall mortality and liver-related complications in cirrhotic patients.

METHODS

A prospective cohort of 250 subjects with compensated hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis and without known diabetes underwent an oral glucose tolerance test and were subsequently followed for a median 201 weeks.

RESULTS

At baseline, 67 (27%) had type 2 diabetes. During follow-up, 28 deaths and 55 first events of decompensation occurred. After adjustment for potential confounding covariates, overall mortality/liver transplant (sHR: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.04-4.6, P=0.04) and hepatic decompensation events (sHR: 1.9, 95% CI: 1.05-3.3, P=0.03) were significantly higher in diabetic patients. Subjects with a HOMA-IR >5 showed higher rates of mortality (sHR: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.03-4.8, P=0.04). The rates of hepatic decompensation were higher in patients with HOMA-IR >3 (sHR: 1.7, 95% CI: 1.04-2.9, P=0.03). Overall, 2h-plasma glucose was the most robust predictor of overall mortality (sHR: 2.5, 95% CI: 1.03-6, P=0.04) and decompensation (sHR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.4-5.5, P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

In compensated HCV-related cirrhotic patients, diabetes and marked insulin resistance are independently associated with poorer overall survival and increased risk of hepatic decompensation.

Effect of coexisting diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease on mortality of cirrhotic patients with esophageal variceal bleeding

BACKGROUND

Esophageal variceal bleeding (EVB) is a serious and common complication of cirrhosis. Diabetes mellitus (DM) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) increase mortality in patients with cirrhosis. However, whether coexisting DM and CKD increase mortality in cirrhotic patients with EVB remains unclear.

METHODS

We enrolled cirrhotic patients hospitalized with the first presentation of EVB from 2005 through 2010 using Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2005. The hazard ratios (HRs) of 42-day and one-year EVB mortality were calculated using Cox regression model.

RESULTS

We identified 888 patients hospitalized with the first presentation of EVB. Among the cirrhotic patients with EVB, all-cause mortality at 42-day and one-year were 21.3 and 45.0 %, respectively. The respective HRs for the 42-day and one-year mortality were 1.80 (95 % confidence interval [CI], 1.10-2.97) and 1.52 (95 % CI, 1.06-2.17) for patients with CKD and 0.79 (95 % CI, 0.57-1.10) and 0.88 (95 % CI, 0.71-1.09) for patients with DM. Specifically, coexisting CKD and DM increased the 42-day and one-year mortality with respective HRs of 1.99 (95%CI, 1.03-3.84) and 1.84 (95%CI, 1.14-2.98) compared with those without CKD and DM. The HRs for 42-day and 1-year mortality in female patients with DM and CKD were 4.03 (95%CI, 1.40-11.59) and 2.84 (95%CI, 1.31-6.14) respectively, and were 2.93 (95%CI, 1.14-7.57) and 2.42 (95%CI, 1.28-4.57) in male patients with DM and CKD.

CONCLUSION

We identified that coexisting DM and CKD increased risk of mortality at 42 days and 1 year following EVB.

Current Concepts in Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Liver Disease: Clinical Outcomes, Hepatitis C Virus Association, and Therapy

Hereditary type 2 diabetes mellitus is a risk factor for chronic liver disease, and ~30 % of patients with liver cirrhosis develop diabetes. Diabetes mellitus has been associated with cirrhotic and non-cirrhotic hepatitis C virus liver infection, can aggravate the course the liver infection, and can induce a lower sustained response to antiviral treatment. Evidences that HCV may induce metabolic and autoimmune disturbances leading to hypobetalipoproteinemia, steatosis, insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance, thyroid disease, and gonadal dysfunction have been found. Prospective studies have demonstrated that diabetes increases the risk of liver complications and death in patients with cirrhosis. However, treatment of diabetes in these patients is complex, as antidiabetic drugs can promote hypoglycemia and lactic acidosis. There have been few therapeutic studies evaluating antidiabetic treatments in patients with liver cirrhosis published to date; thus, the optimal treatment for diabetes and the impact of treatment on morbidity and mortality are not clearly known. As numbers of patients with chronic liver disease and diabetes mellitus are increasing, largely because of the global epidemics of obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, evaluation of treatment options is becoming more important. This review discusses new concepts on hepatogenous diabetes, the diabetes mellitus–hepatitis C virus association, and clinical implications of diabetes mellitus in patients with chronic liver disease. In addition, the effectiveness and safety of old and new antidiabetic drugs, including incretin-based therapies, will be described.

The treatment of diabetes mellitus of patients with chronic liver disease

About 80% of patients with liver cirrhosis may have glucose metabolism disorders, 30% show overt diabetes mellitus (DM). Prospective studies have demonstrated that DM is associated with an increased risk of hepatic complications and death in patients with liver cirrhosis. DM might contribute to liver damage by promoting inflammation and fibrosis through an increase in mitochondrial oxidative stress mediated by adipokines. Based on the above mentioned the effective control of hyperglycemia may have a favorable impact on the evolution of these patients. However, only few therapeutic studies have evaluated the effectiveness and safety of antidiabetic drugs and the impact of the treatment of DM on morbidity and mortality in patients with liver cirrhosis. In addition, oral hypoglycemic agents and insulin may produce hypoglycemia and lactic acidosis, as most of these agents are metabolized by the liver. This review discusses the clinical implications of DM in patients with chronic liver disease. In addition the effectiveness and safety of old, but particularly the new antidiabetic drugs will be described based on pharmacokinetic studies and chronic administration to patients. Recent reports regarding the use of the SGLT2 inhibitors as well as the new incretin-based therapies such as injectable glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists and oral inhibitors of dipeptidylpeptidase-4 (DPP-4) will be discussed. The establishment of clear guidelines for the management of diabetes in patients with CLD is strongly required.

Influence of gastrointestinal factors on glucose metabolism in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The impaired glucose tolerance in cirrhosis is poorly understood. We evaluated the influence of gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal and incretin effect in patients with cirrhosis.

METHODS

Non-diabetic patients with Child-Pugh A or B cirrhosis (n = 10) and matched healthy controls (n = 10) underwent a 50-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and an isoglycemic intravenous glucose infusion. We presented data as median ± interquartile range and compared groups using non-parametric analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Patients with cirrhosis were glucose intolerant compared with healthy controls (4-h OGTTAUC : 609 ± 458 vs 180 ± 155 min × mmol/L; P = 0.005), insulin resistant (homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance: 3.7 ± 4.9 vs 2.6 ± 1.4; P = 0.014) and had fasting hyperglucagonemia (8 ± 3 vs 3 ± 4 pmol/L; P = 0.027). Isoglycemia was achieved using 35 ± 12 g of intravenous glucose in patients with cirrhosis compared with 24 ± 10 g in healthy controls (P = 0.003). The gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal was markedly lower in patients with cirrhosis (30 ± 23 vs 52 ± 20%; P = 0.003). Despite higher levels of the incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide patients with cirrhosis had reduced incretin effect (35 ± 44 vs 55 ± 30%; P = 0.008).

CONCLUSION

Impaired gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal and reduced incretin effect may contribute to the glucose intolerance seen in patients with cirrhosis.

Clinical effects of comprehensive nursing intervention in elderly liver cirrhosis patients with type 2 diabetes

AIM: To evaluate the clinical effects of comprehensive nursing intervention in elderly cirrhosis patients with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS: One hundred and eight elderly patients with hepatitis B associated liver cirrhosis and type 2 diabetes treated from January 2013 to January 2015 at the Second Hospital of Yinzhou were randomly divided into an observation group and a control group, with 54 cases in each group. The control group received conventional nursing, and the observation group was given comprehensive nursing intervention on the basis of routine nursing. The incidence of complications and changes in blood sugar levels and liver function were compared for the two groups.

RESULTS: Aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase and globulin levels, fasting glucose, and 2-h postprandial glucose levels were significantly lower in the observation group than in the control group (P < 0.05). The complication rate in the observation group was also significantly lower than that in the control group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION: Comprehensive nursing intervention in elderly liver cirrhosis patients with type 2 diabetes can improve liver function and blood sugar levels and reduce the incidence of complications.

Impact of hepatogenous diabetes on clinical features of patients with HBV related chronic liver failure

AIM: To investigate the impact of hepatogenous diabetes (HD) on the clinical features of patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV) related chronic liver failure (CLF).

METHODS: One hundred and eighty-seven patients with HBV related CLF were divided into either an HD group (n = 65) or a control group (n = 122). The liver and kidney function, HBV DNA level, coagulation function, glycosylated hemoglobin Alc (HbAlc) level, Child-Pugh score, model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) score, complications and mortality at 24 wk were analyzed. The correlations between HbAlc level and Child-Pugh score and MELD score were analyzed by linear correlation analysis. Unconditional binary response logistic regression model was used to determine the correlations between HbAlc level and the incidence of complications and mortality at 24 wk.

RESULTS: The incidence of HD in patients with HBV related CLF was 34.76%. The level of total bilirubin (TBIL), international normalized ratio (INR), creatinine (CRE), HbAlc, Child-Pugh score and MELD score were significantly higher in the HD group (P < 0.05). The incidence rates of spontaneous peritonitis and hepatorenal syndrome and mortality at 24 wk were also significantly higher in the HD group (P < 0.05). There were positive correlations between the HbAlc level and Child-Pugh score (r² = 0.17, F = 14.74, P = 0.021) and MELD score (r² = 0.19, F = 16.61, P = 0.014) in patients with CLF. Logistic regression analysis identified that high HbAlc level was related to the high incidence of spontaneous peritonitis (P = 0.019, OR = 2.27) and hepatorenal syndrome (P = 0.023, OR = 1.02) and high mortality at 24 wk (P = 0.032, OR = 0.85).

CONCLUSION: The clinical features of patients with HBV related CLF complicated with HD are more serious. High HbAlc level is a risk factor for spontaneous peritonitis, hepatorenal syndrome and worse prognosis in patients with HBV related CLF.

Clinical characteristics, prognosis and nursing intervention in hepatogenic diabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus

AIM: To compare the clinical characteristics, prognosis and nursing intervention between patients with hepatogenic diabetes (HD) and those with type 2 diabetes (T2DM).

METHODS: Sixty patients with hyperglycaemia were divided into two groups: an HD group (n = 30) and a T2DM group (n = 30). Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and glucose-stimulated insulin release test were performed in all patients. The levels of fasting blood glucose (FBG) and glycosylated hemoglobin (HbAlc) were determined. All patients were given medical management, hypoglycemic therapy and comprehensive nursing intervention. BSL were compared between before and after nursing intervention.

RESULTS: FBG and HbAlc in the HD group were significantly lower than those in the T2DM group (7.8 mmol/L ± 2.4 mmol/L vs 9.6 mmol/L ± 3.2 mmol/L, 0.065 ± 0.017 vs 0.083 ± 0.027, t = 1.017, 0.976; P = 0.002, 0.004). BSL in the HD group at different time points (0, 30, 60, 120, 180 min) were all significantly lower than those in the T2DM group (P < 0.05). Insulin and peptide C levels in the HD group at different time points (0, 30, 60, 120, 180 min) were all significantly higher than those in the T2DM group (P < 0.05). All patients were given medical management, hypoglycemic therapy and comprehensive nursing intervention. BSL in both the HD group and T2DM group were significantly lower after intervention than before intervention (t = 2. 076, 1.872, 2.301, 1.874; P = 0.003, 0.004, 0.002, 0.004).

CONCLUSION: Hyperinsulinemia is more obvious and BSL is controlled better in HD patients. Comprehensive nursing intervention is conducive to controlling BSL in both HD and T2DM patients.