Spatial extent of degraded sediment quality in Puget Sound (Washington State, U.S.A.) based upon measures of the sediment quality triad

Assessing hydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (OHPAH) metabolites in bile of English sole (Parophrys vetulus) from Puget Sound, WA, USA by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants that are widely monitored in marine biota from urbanized areas, due to their toxicity to aquatic organisms. Teleost fish can quickly metabolize PAHs into hydroxylated forms (OHPAHs) that, in some cases, are more toxic than the parent (unmetabolized) PAHs. But due to this fast metabolism, monitoring traditional parent PAHs in fish can cause underestimation on assessing PAH exposure. In addition, environmental levels of individual OHPAH metabolites are lacking in the literature worldwide. Therefore, we developed a rapid and accurate analytical method in which a number of individual OHPAHs metabolites are measured simultaneously in fish bile, via liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, including low and high molecular weight mono- and diol-OHPAHs. We analyzed bile samples of 119 English sole (Parophrys vetulus) collected from 14 Puget Sound, WA, USA, sites, which has multiple sources of PAHs, including urban stormwater runoff, wastewater effluents, as well as an inactive creosote facility. The mean (± SD) biliary summed OHPAH (∑OHPAH) concentrations determined in English sole from urban, near-urban, and non-urban sites were 790 ± 1400 (n = 46), 310 ± 330 (n = 44) and 130 ± 200 (n = 29) ng/mL, respectively, with a maximum reaching 9400 ng/mL in a sample from an urban site. We compared these novel biliary OHPAH metabolite data with parent PAHs measured in stomach content of the same individual sole. Biliary ∑OHPAH concentrations were significantly correlated with the levels of ∑PAH in stomach content, however, with major differences in their distribution. We also demonstrated that biliary OHPAH metabolite data in English sole can potentially be used to distinguish different sampling sites due to a specific variety and intensity of PAH sources in the aquatic environment, which makes this a very important analytical approach for assessing PAH exposure in the environment.

Highly contaminated river otters (Lontra canadensis) are effective biomonitors of environmental pollutant exposure

River otters (Lontra canadensis) are apex predators that bioaccumulate contaminants via their diet, potentially serving as biomonitors of watershed health. They reside throughout the Green-Duwamish River, WA (USA), a watershed encompassing an extreme urbanization gradient, including a US Superfund site slated for a 17-year remediation. The objectives of this study were to document baseline contaminant levels in river otters, assess otters' utility as top trophic-level biomonitors of contaminant exposure, and evaluate the potential for health impacts on this species. We measured a suite of contaminants of concern, lipid content, nitrogen stable isotopes (δ¹⁵N), and microsatellite DNA markers in 69 otter scat samples collected from twelve sites. Landcover characteristics were used to group sampling sites into industrial (Superfund site), suburban, and rural development zones. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ether flame-retardants (PBDEs), dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) increased significantly with increasing urbanization, and were best predicted by models that included development zone, suggesting that river otters are effective biomonitors, as defined in this study. Diet also played an important role, with lipid content, δ¹⁵N or both included in all best models. We recommend river otter scat be included in evaluating restoration efforts in this Superfund site, and as a potentially useful monitoring tool wherever otters are found. We also report ΣPCB and ΣPAH exposures among the highest published for wild river otters, with almost 70% of samples in the Superfund site exceeding established levels of concern.

Toward a conceptual framework for managing and conserving marine habitats: A case study of kelp forests in the Salish Sea

Kelp forests are in decline across much of their range due to place-specific combinations of local and global stressors. Declines in kelp abundance can lead to cascading losses of biodiversity and productivity with far-reaching ecological and socioeconomic consequences. The Salish Sea is a hotspot of kelp diversity where many species of kelp provide critical habitat and food for commercially, ecologically, and culturally important fish and invertebrate species. However, like other regions, kelp forests in much of the Salish Sea are in rapid decline. Data gaps and limited long-term monitoring have hampered attempts to identify and manage for specific drivers of decline, despite the documented urgency to protect these important habitats. To address these knowledge gaps, we gathered a focus group of experts on kelp in the Salish Sea to identify perceived direct and indirect stressors facing kelp forests. We then conducted a comprehensive literature review of peer-reviewed studies from the Salish Sea and temperate coastal ecosystems worldwide to assess the level of support for the pathways identified by the experts, and we identified knowledge gaps to prioritize future research. Our results revealed major research gaps within the Salish Sea and highlighted the potential to use expert knowledge for making informed decisions in the region. We found high support for the pathways in the global literature, with variable consensus on the relationship between stressors and responses across studies, confirming the influence of local ecological, oceanographic, and anthropogenic contexts and threshold effects on stressor-response relationships. Finally, we prioritized areas for future research in the Salish Sea. This study demonstrates the value expert opinion has to inform management decisions. These methods are readily adaptable to other ecosystem management contexts, and the results of this case study can be immediately applied to kelp management.

Maternal transfer of polychlorinated biphenyls in Pacific sand lance (Ammodytes personatus), Puget Sound, Washington

We measured polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in multiple age and size classes of Pacific sand lance (Ammodytes personatus), including eggs, young-of-the year, and adults to evaluate maternal transfer as a pathway for contaminant uptake and to add to the limited information on the occurrence of PCBs in sand lance in Puget Sound. Sampling was replicated at an urban embayment (Eagle Harbor) and a state park along an open shoreline (Clayton Beach), during spring and fall. Lipid-normalized concentrations of PCBs in sand lance at Eagle Harbor were 5-11 times higher than PCB concentrations in comparable samples at Clayton Beach. This was true for every life stage and size class of sand lance, including eggs removed from females. The same trend was observed in environmental samples. In Eagle Harbor, PCB concentrations in unfiltered water (0.19 ng/L), sieved (<63 μm) nearshore bed sediments (0.78 ng/g dw) and suspended particulate matter (1.69 ng/g dw) were 2-3 times higher than equivalent samples from near Clayton Beach. Sand lance collected in the fall (buried in sediment during presumed winter dormancy) had lower lipid content and up to four times higher PCB concentrations than comparably sized fish collected in the spring (by beach seine). Lipid content was 5-8% in spring fish and was reduced in fall fish (1-3%). Male sand lance had higher PCB concentrations than comparable females. All egg samples contained PCBs, and the lipid normalized egg/female concentration ratios were close to 1 (0.87-0.96), confirming that maternal transfer of PCBs occurred, resulting in sand lance eggs and early life stages being contaminated with PCBs even before they are exposed to exogenous sources. These life stages are prey for an even wider range of species than consume adult sand lance, creating additional exposure pathways for biota and increasing the challenges for mitigation of PCBs in the food web.

Complex relationships between shallow muddy benthic assemblages, sediment chemistry and toxicity in estuaries in southern New South Wales, Australia

Synoptic sediment quality triad (contaminants, benthic assemblages, toxicity testing) data were collected for sites in Sydney estuary, adjacent Cooks River and five less-modified southern estuaries. Matching data tested relationships between contaminants and benthic assemblages, correlations with specific contaminants, and the ability of sediment quality guidelines to predict the risk of adverse effects. Significant but weak relationships occurred in complex patterns between assemblages, contaminant concentrations and environmental variables. Maximum benthos abundance occurred where sediment contamination was high and was dominated by polychaetes. Spionidae (polychaete) and Galeommatidae (mollusc) abundances were strongly correlated with site environmental characteristics and with varying mixtures of metals and organic contaminants. The risk of adverse effects on benthic assemblage structure increased with increasing sediment toxicity except for areas of very high contamination and for non-bioavailable anthropogenic chemicals. The overall weight-of-evidence scores differentiated the highly modified sites from less-contaminated southern estuaries, where toxicity scores were higher than predicted.

Time Trends of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Benthic and Pelagic Indicator Fishes from Puget Sound, Washington, USA

We modeled temporal trends in polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs) in two indicator fish species representing benthic and pelagic habitats in Puget Sound, Washington, USA. English sole (Parophrys vetulus, benthic) index sites and larger-scale Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii, pelagic) foraging areas represented a wide range of possible contamination conditions, with sampling locations situated adjacent to watersheds exhibiting high, medium and low development. Consistency in analytical data throughout the study was maintained by either calculating method-bias-correction factors on paired samples as methods evolved or by analyzing older archived samples by current methods. PCBs declined moderately in two herring stocks from a low-development basin (2.3 and 4.0% annual rate of decline) and showed no change in the highly developed and moderately developed basins during a 16- to 21-year period. PCBs increased in English sole from four of ten sites (2.9-7.1%), and the remaining six exhibited no significant change. PBDEs and DDTs declined significantly in all herring stocks (4.2-8.1%), although analytical challenges warrant caution in interpreting DDT results. PBDEs declined in English sole from two high-development and one low-development site (3.7-7.2%) and remained unchanged in the remaining seven. DDTs increased in English sole from one high-development site (Tacoma City Waterway) and declined in two high-development and one low development site. As with herring, analytical challenges warrant caution in interpreting the English sole DDT results. It is likely that source controls and mitigation efforts have contributed to the declines in PBDEs and DDTs overall, whereas PCBs appear to have persisted, especially in the pelagic food web, despite bans in PCB production and use.

An evaluation of background levels and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in naturally spawned embryos of Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii) from Puget Sound, Washington, USA

Pacific herring embryos spawned in nearshore habitats may be exposed to toxic contaminants as they develop, from exogenous sources in spawning habitats and from maternal transfer. Determining baseline concentrations of these toxic contaminants is important for evaluating the health of this species, especially during this sensitive life stage. In this study we compared concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs, in naturally spawned herring embryos from five spawning areas across Puget Sound. The summed values of 31 PAH analytes (Σ31PAH) in early- to late-stage development embryos ranged from 1.1 to 140 ng/g, wet weight. Σ31PAH concentrations increased with development time in embryos from one spawning area where the greatest concentrations were observed, and the relative abundance of PAH chemicals in late-stage embryos was similar to those in nearby sediments, suggesting accumulation from local environmental sources. PAHs in both sediments and late-stage embryos appeared to exhibit a pyrogenic pattern. Although maternal transfer of PAHs appeared to be a negligible source to embryos in spawning areas with the greatest embryo PAH concentrations, maternal transfer may have been the dominant source in embryos from spawning areas where the lowest levels of embryo-PAHs occurred. Chronic embryo mortality has been reported in spawning habitats where we observed the greatest concentration of PAHs in embryos, and necrotic tissue in herring embryos from one such location was similar in description to phototoxic PAH necrosis reported elsewhere for embryonic zebrafish.

Quantification of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and perfluoroalkyl substances in the marine sediments of Puget Sound, Washington, USA

Concentrations of 119 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and 13 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in marine sediments measured throughout Puget Sound (n = 10) and Bellingham Bay (n = 30), Washington, USA, are reported. These data are among the first measurements of PPCPs and PFASs in marine sediments from the Pacific Northwest and provide a comparison to previous measurements of these chemicals in influent, effluent, and biosolids from municipal wastewater treatment plants throughout the region. The concentrations of both PPCPs and PFASs in sediments from Puget Sound and Bellingham Bay ranged from very low to non-detectable for most compounds. Only 14 of the 119 PPCPs and 3 of 13 PFASs were quantifiable in sediments. Diphenhydramine (an antihistamine) was most frequently detected (87.5% of samples), with a maximum concentration of 4.81 ng/g dry weight and an estimated mean detected concentration of 1.68 ng/g. Triclocarban (an antibacterial) was detected in 35.0% of the samples, with a maximum concentration of 16.6 ng/g dry weight. Perfluoroalkyl substances were detected in 2.5% of analyses. Perfluorobutanoate, perfluorooctane sulfonate, and perfluorooctane sulfonamide were detected in 7, 5, and 1 sample(s) each, respectively, with the highest concentrations observed for perfluorooctane sulfonate (1.5 ng/g). Detected concentrations were often highest within the industrial harbor in Bellingham Bay and near the cities of Seattle and Bremerton. Environ Toxicol Chem 2013;32:1701-1710. © 2013 SETAC.

Revision of sediment quality triad indicators in Puget Sound (Washington, USA): I. a Sediment Chemistry Index and targets for mixtures of toxicants

The Washington State Department of Ecology annually conducts sediment quality monitoring in Puget Sound as a component of the Puget Sound Ecosystem Monitoring Program. Sediment samples are analyzed to determine the concentrations of about 170 chemical and physical variables. A Sediment Chemistry Index (SCI) was derived using the State of Washington Sediment Management Standards to account for the presence and concentrations of mixtures of toxicants. Mean Sediment Quality Standard quotients (mSQSq) were calculated as the basis for the SCI and compared to the incidence and degree of toxicity in laboratory tests and to metrics of the diversity and abundance of resident benthic assemblages in a database consisting of as many as 664 samples. These data were evaluated with co-occurrence analyses to identify "cut points" (i.e., thresholds) in the index below which the frequency and magnitude of biological effects were relatively low and above which they occurred with increasing frequency or magnitude. Iterative trials of different sets of cut points established the final cut points in mSQSq of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5. They defined 4 ranges in chemical exposure: Minimum (<0.1), Low (0.1- < 0.3), Moderate (0.3- < 0.5), and Maximum (≥0.5). Across these 4 exposure ranges both the incidence and magnitude of toxicity in some laboratory tests increased, the abundance of most stress-sensitive benthic taxa decreased, and the abundance of most stress-tolerant taxa increased. The mSQSq cut point of 0.1 appears to be the target value for protection of benthic resources, the value below which the probability and magnitude of adverse effects either in the laboratory or the field are the lowest. The mSQSq values are rescaled from 0 to 100 to form the SCI, used by the Puget Sound Partnership and environmental managers as a Dashboard Indicator, with biologically relevant targets selected to monitor ecosystem recovery.

Toxicity of sediment pore water in Puget Sound (Washington, USA): a review of spatial status and temporal trends

Data from toxicity tests of the pore water extracted from Puget Sound sediments were compiled from surveys conducted from 1997 to 2009. Tests were performed on 664 samples collected throughout all of the eight monitoring regions in the Sound, an area encompassing 2,294.1 km(2). Tests were performed with the gametes of the Pacific purple sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, to measure percent fertilization success as an indicator of relative sediment quality. Data were evaluated to determine the incidence, degree of response, geographic patterns, spatial extent, and temporal changes in toxicity. This is the first survey of this kind and magnitude in Puget Sound. In the initial round of surveys of the eight regions, 40 of 381 samples were toxic for an incidence of 10.5 %. Stations classified as toxic represented an estimated total of 107.1 km(2), equivalent to 4.7 % of the total area. Percent sea urchin fertilization ranged from >100 % of the nontoxic, negative controls to 0 %. Toxicity was most prevalent and pervasive in the industrialized harbors and lowest in the deep basins. Conditions were intermediate in deep-water passages, urban bays, and rural bays. A second round of testing in four regions and three selected urban bays was completed 5-10 years following the first round. The incidence and spatial extent of toxicity decreased in two of the regions and two of the bays and increased in the other two regions and the third bay; however, only the latter change was statistically significant. Both the incidence and spatial extent of toxicity were lower in the Sound than in most other US estuaries and marine bays.

Development and evaluation of sediment quality guidelines based on benthic macrofauna responses

Toxicity-based sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) are often used to assess the potential of sediment contamination to adversely affect benthic macrofauna, yet the correspondence of these guidelines to benthic community condition is poorly documented. This study compares the performance of 5 toxicity-based SQG approaches to a new benthos-based SQG approach relative to changes in benthic community condition. Four of the toxicity-based SQG approaches--effects range median, logistic regression modeling (LRM), sediment quality guideline quotient 1 (SQGQ1), and consensus--were derived in previous national studies in the United States, and one was developed as a regional variation of LRM calibrated to California data. The new benthos-based SQG approach, chemical score index, was derived from Southern California benthic community data. The chemical-specific guidelines for each approach were applied to matched chemical concentration, amphipod mortality, and benthic macrofauna abundance data for Southern California. Respective results for each SQG approach were then combined into a summary metric describing the overall contamination magnitude (e.g., mean quotient) and assessed in accordance with a set of thresholds in order to classify stations into 4 categories of expected biological effect. Results for each SQG approach were significantly correlated with changes in sediment toxicity and benthic community condition. Cumulative frequency plots and effect category thresholds for toxicity and benthic community condition were similar, indicating that both types of effect measures had similar sensitivity and specificity of response to contamination level. In terms of discriminating among multiple levels of benthic community condition, the toxicity-based SQG indices illustrated moderate capabilities, similar to those for multiple levels of toxicity. The National LRM, California LRM, and the chemical score index had the highest overall agreement with benthic categories. However, only the benthos-based chemical score index was consistently among the highest performing SQG indices for all measures of association (correlation, percent agreement, and weighted kappa) for both toxicity and benthos.

Biological responses to sediment remediation based on thin layer placement near a former pulp mill in Ward Cove, AK (USA)

In 2001, 28 acres of the bottom of Ward Cove, AK (USA) were remediated using thin layer placement, to enhance the natural recovery of contaminated sediments. The remediated areas were part of an 80-acre area of concern identified offshore from the site of a former sulfite pulp mill. The primary chemicals of concern were those commonly associated with organic enrichment near pulp mills: ammonia and 4-methylphenol. The primary remedial objectives were to reduce the toxicity of the contaminated sediments and to stimulate colonization of the remediated areas by benthic macroinvertebrates. In 2004, the initial monitoring event for the remediated areas was conducted, and included evaluations of physical/chemical sediment variables (i.e., total organic carbon, grain size distribution, ammonia, and 4-methylphenol), sediment toxicity (i.e., using the 10-day amphipod survival test with Eohaustorius estuarius), and in situ benthic macroinvertebrate communities. Results of the monitoring event showed that conditions in the remediated areas had improved considerably in the 3 years since thin layer placement had occurred. At most stations, concentrations of both ammonia and 4-methylphenol were very low, and amphipod survival was >or=90%. In addition, benthic macroinvertebrates appeared to be rapidly colonizing the remediated areas, based on evaluations of several community metrics (i.e., taxa richness, diversity, and dominance), as well as key indicator species of organic enrichment and associated transitional areas (i.e., primarily the polychaetes Capitella capitata and Nephtys cornuta, and the bivalve molluscs Axinopsida serricata and Parvilucina tenuisculpta). In general, colonization was consistent with the patterns identified for areas recovering from organic enrichment on the continental shelf of southern California and elsewhere. Based on these results, thin layer placement was considered successful in enhancing the natural recovery of the remediated sediments in Ward Cove.