Decline in the Quality of Family Relationships Predicts Escalation in Children's Internalizing Symptoms from Middle to Late Childhood

Gender Differences in Variability in Intimate Relationship Satisfaction: A Secondary Analysis and Meta-Analysis

There is a long-standing interest in gender differences in satisfaction in intimate relationships. Whereas prior research has focused on gender differences in central tendency (i.e., means), we conducted two studies - a secondary analysis of data from a probability sample of Australian married couples and a meta-analysis - to examine gender differences in variability (i.e., variances). We hypothesized that compared to males, females would demonstrate greater variability in intimate relationship satisfaction (i.e., greater female variability hypothesis), particularly at lower levels of relationship satisfaction. Results from a secondary analysis of data from 2,711 married couples in the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey and from a meta-analysis of 20 years of research (k = 171, N = 84,976), including independent samples from 33 countries, indicated that relative to males, females reported greater variability in relationship satisfaction. Obtained effect sizes (female-to-male variance ratios [VRs] of 1.42 for the HILDA sample and 1.19 for the meta-analysis) were larger than proposed cutoffs for meaningful group differences in variability. Analysis of tail ratios (ratios of the relative proportion of females divided by the relative proportion of males in the distributional tail regions) in the HILDA sample indicated that gender differences in variability were greater at lower (versus higher) levels of satisfaction. Findings support the greater female variability hypothesis and suggest that by focusing only on gender differences in means, the existing literature has underestimated gender differences in intimate relationship satisfaction.

Sequelae of infants' negative affectivity in the contexts of emerging distinct attachment organizations: Multifinality in mother-child and father-child dyads across the first year

Infants' high negative affectivity often initiates maladaptive parent-child relational processes that may involve both the parent's and the child's sides of the relationship. We proposed that infants' high negative affectivity triggers distinct sequelae in dyads classified as avoidant, resistant, and disorganized, compared to secure dyads. In 200 community families, at 8 months, we observed infants' negative affectivity; at 16 months, we assessed attachment organization and collected observations and reports of parent-related (responsiveness, resentment of child, power assertion, and intrusiveness) and child-related (social-emotional competence, opposition, and anger) constructs. In mother-child avoidant dyads, infants' high negative affectivity was a significant precursor of mothers' higher resentment and intrusiveness and children's lower social-emotional competence. Those associations were significantly different than in secure dyads (in which none were significant). In father-child disorganized dyads, infants' high negative affectivity was a significant precursor of fathers' lower responsiveness and higher resentment; there were no association in secure dyads. Regardless of infants' negative affectivity, compared to secure dyads, parents in resistant dyads expressed more resentment of child, and avoidant and resistant children were more oppositional to their fathers. The study illustrates multifinality in parent- and child-related processes that characterize unfolding early relational dynamics in dyads differing in just-emerging attachment.

Flourishing and Self-Control in Adolescence: The Role of Perceived Parenting

Self-control is the ability to control thoughts, emotions, and impulses to pursuit of long-term goals. Adolescents with high self-control experience higher flourishing levels. The latter refers to the fulfillment of needs for competence, relationship, and self-acceptance, as well as the possession of psychological capital such as flow and commitment. High levels of self-control also seem to be linked to a positive relationship with parents, which is crucial in adolescent flourishing. However, few studies investigated the association between flourishing, self-control, and perceived parenting in adolescence. The aim of this study was to investigate how the ability to exert self-control and the need to perceive and preserve a responsive relationship with parents would facilitate adolescents' experience of higher flourishing levels. The relationships among self-control, adolescents' perception of some paternal and maternal dimensions (closeness, communication, and parents' peer approval), and flourishing were analyzed in a sample of 335 Italian adolescents. Self-control was positively correlated with flourishing and the adolescent's perception of maternal and paternal dimensions. The PROCESS model showed that perceived maternal and paternal dimensions mediate the relationship between self-control and flourishing. These findings show the importance of self-control and parenting dimensions in promoting flourishing during adolescence.

Couple's Relationship during the Transition to Parenthood and Toddler's Emotional and Behavioral Problems

The literature has mainly focused on the impact of the negative aspects of the couple's relationship on the toddler's internalizing and externalizing problems. This study explored the impact of the positive and negative dimensions of the couple's relationship during the transition to parenthood on toddlers' psychological adjustment, considering the concurrent impact of the couple's relationship at 30 months postpartum. The sample comprised 115 mothers and fathers (N = 230) recruited during the 1st trimester of pregnancy. The mothers and fathers individually completed a measure of the couple's relationship (Relationship Questionnaire) during the first trimester of pregnancy, at 3 and 30 months postpartum, and the Child Behavior Checklist 1.5-5 at 30 months postpartum. Multiple linear regressions, cluster analyses, and univariate and multivariate analyses of variance were conducted. The positive dimension at the 1st trimester of pregnancy and the negative dimension of the couple's relationship at 3 months postpartum were the strongest predictors of the toddler's internalizing problems, while the negative dimension at 3 months postpartum and the positive dimension of the couple's relationship at 30 months postpartum were the strongest predictors of the toddler's externalizing problems. Two patterns of the couple's relationship (adjusted vs. non-adjusted) during the transition to parenthood were identified. Higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems were found in toddlers from couples with a non-adjusted couple's relationship. Findings suggested the impact of both positive and negative dimensions of the couple's relationship during the transition to parenthood on the toddler's emotional and behavioral problems. Promoting the couple's relationship adjustment during the transition to parenthood can help to prevent toddlers' emotional and behavioral problems.

A path model examination: maternal anxiety and parenting mediate the association between maternal adverse childhood experiences and children's internalizing behaviors

BACKGROUND

Children of mothers with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are at increased risk for developmental problems. However, the mechanisms through which a mother's experience of ACEs are transmitted to her offspring are understudied. The current study investigates potential modifiable mediators (maternal psychopathology and parenting) of the association between maternal ACEs and children's behavioral problems.

METHODS

We utilized data from a pregnancy cohort study (N = 1030; CANDLE study) to investigate longitudinal associations between maternal ACEs, postpartum anxiety, observed parenting behavior, and child internalizing behaviors (meanage = 4.31 years, s.d. age = 0.38) in a racially diverse (67% Black; 33% White/Other) sample. We used structural equation modeling to test for direct associations between maternal ACEs and children's internalizing behaviors, as well as indirect associations via two simple mediations (maternal anxiety and parenting), and one serial mediation (sequence of maternal anxiety to parenting).

RESULTS

Simple mediation results indicated that maternal anxiety and cognitive growth fostering behaviors independently mediated the association between maternal ACEs and child internalizing. We observed no evidence of a serial mediation from ACEs to internalizing via the effects of maternal anxiety on parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports and refines extant literature by confirming the intergenerational association between maternal ACEs and child internalizing behaviors in a large, diverse sample, and identifies potential modifiable mediators: maternal anxiety and parenting behaviors related to fostering cognitive development. Findings may inform interventions targeting mothers who have experienced ACEs and suggest that providing support around specific parenting behaviors and addressing maternal anxiety may reduce internalizing behaviors in children.

Negative internal working models as mechanisms that link mothers' and fathers' personality with their parenting: A short-term longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

Research on associations between parents' personality and parenting has a long history, but mechanisms that explain them remain unsettled. We examined parents' explicit and implicit negative internal working models (IWMs) of the child, assessed at toddler age, as linking parental personality and parenting.

METHOD

Mothers and fathers from 200 community families provided personality self-reports (Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Empathy, and Anger/Hostility) when their children were infants. When children were toddlers, the explicit negative IWMs included self-reported low-mentalizing reflective functioning and resentment regarding the child. The implicit negative IWMs were coded as negative relational schemas from parental interviews. Parental positive affect, responsiveness, and power-assertive control were observed in lengthy interactions. Measures were parallel for mother- and father-child dyads.

RESULTS

Mothers' implicit IWMs linked the association between low Empathy and more power-assertive control. Fathers' explicit IWMs linked the associations between high Neuroticism and low Agreeableness and lower responsiveness. Additionally, fathers' Agreeableness and Empathy directly predicted their parenting. Two paths (Agreeableness → implicit IWMs, and explicit IWMs → responsiveness) significantly differed between mothers and fathers.

CONCLUSIONS

IWMs may link parental personality with parenting. The findings integrate and inform several bodies of literature in personality, social cognition, and developmental psychology.

The Association between Coparenting Behavior and Internalizing/Externalizing Problems of Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis

This study aimed to determine the association between coparenting behavior and children's externalizing and internalizing problems and possible factors that may moderate their associations. A meta-analysis of 93 studies involving 41,207 participants found that coparenting behavior was slightly and significantly related to externalizing problems, r = -0.17, 95% CI [-0.194, -0.15], and internalizing problems, r = -0.16, 95% CI [-0.18, -0.14]. In addition, coparenting integrity, cooperation, conflict, competitiveness, and triangulation were significantly related to externalizing and internalizing problems. Moderation analyses revealed the following findings: (a) data reporter moderated the association between coparenting and internalizing problems, with children-report coparenting showing a significantly stronger relation with internalizing symptom than father-report coparenting; (b) developmental stage was found to moderate the association between coparenting behavior and externalizing problems, with stronger association found in childhood than in toddlerhood; (c) female percentage, individualism-collectivism culture, research methods, and publication year were not found to moderate the association between coparenting behavior and externalizing or internalizing problems. These findings help summarize the previous studies and provide an empirical basis for the relation between coparenting and child externalizing/internalizing problems, and benefits targeted interventions towards coparenting behaviors.

Relationship Aspects of Mothers and Their Adolescents with Intellectual Disability as Expressed through the Joint Painting Procedure

The quality of the interaction between mothers and their children with an Intellectual Disability (ID) plays a crucial role in their development and in particular during adolescence. This qualitative study was designed to provide a better understanding of aspects of the relationships between mothers and their adolescents with ID through an art-based tool, the Joint Painting Procedure. The qualitative analysis of six dyads of mothers and adolescents with severe, moderate and mild ID was based on the principles of narrative and phenomenological inquiry. The findings yielded three key themes that emerged from the relational dynamics during the JPP: (1) from dependency to autonomy, (2) the joint painting as a way to foster verbal communication, and (3) playfulness and enjoyment. The JPP appeared to serve as a meaningful art-based assessment of the implicit and explicit aspects of the relationships which evolved during the interaction. The findings underscore the potential of the JPP as a non-verbal, art-based tool that allows researchers and clinicians to learn more about the dynamics of relationships between mothers and their adolescents with ID. It also enables a context where the expression of relational issues can be communicated and even transformed.

The Association Between Family Function and Adolescents' Depressive Symptoms in China: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Analysis

The complex interrelationships between family function and adolescents' depressive symptoms are not yet fully clarified, especially in China. Based on the family systems theory, this study explored the relationships between family function and Chinese adolescents' depressive symptoms by a 3-year longitudinal study design. Three waves of data were collected from 1,301 Chinese middle school students in Grade 7 to Grade 9. All participants completed the Chinese Family Assessment Instrument (CFAI) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) once a year during the junior middle school period. Our results showed that both family function and adolescent depressive symptoms were stable in Grade 7 and Grade 8, but in Grade 9, family function increased and depressive symptoms declined. Furthermore, we found that the family function in Grade 7 negatively influenced depressive symptoms of adolescents in Grade 8, while adolescent depressive symptoms in Grade 8 negatively impacted subsequent family function in Grade 9, namely there was a circular effect between family function and adolescent depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that the associations between family function and adolescents' depressive symptoms are dynamic and time-dependent. Our study contributes to the intervention aimed at the reduction of adolescent depressive symptoms from the family perspective.

The Association Between Family Function and Adolescents' Depressive Symptoms in China: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Analysis

The complex interrelationships between family function and adolescents' depressive symptoms are not yet fully clarified, especially in China. Based on the family systems theory, this study explored the relationships between family function and Chinese adolescents' depressive symptoms by a 3-year longitudinal study design. Three waves of data were collected from 1,301 Chinese middle school students in Grade 7 to Grade 9. All participants completed the Chinese Family Assessment Instrument (CFAI) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) once a year during the junior middle school period. Our results showed that both family function and adolescent depressive symptoms were stable in Grade 7 and Grade 8, but in Grade 9, family function increased and depressive symptoms declined. Furthermore, we found that the family function in Grade 7 negatively influenced depressive symptoms of adolescents in Grade 8, while adolescent depressive symptoms in Grade 8 negatively impacted subsequent family function in Grade 9, namely there was a circular effect between family function and adolescent depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that the associations between family function and adolescents' depressive symptoms are dynamic and time-dependent. Our study contributes to the intervention aimed at the reduction of adolescent depressive symptoms from the family perspective.

Maternal depressive symptoms, poverty, and young motherhood increase the odds of early depressive and anxiety disorders for children born prematurely

Children born preterm, compared to term, are at risk for behavioral problems. However, the prevalence and predictors of internalizing disorders among children born preterm are unclear. The purpose of this study was to identify the prevalence of depressive and anxiety disorders at 2 years of age among children born preterm and determine the extent to which poverty, maternal depressive symptoms, or young motherhood increase the likelihood of these disorders. Mothers and their infants (N = 105) were recruited from two neonatal intensive care units affiliated with a major U.S. university. A sociodemographic questionnaire, the Patient Health Questionnaire‐9, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition scale scores from the Preschool Child Behavior Checklist were used to measure primary variables. We examined mothers’ family satisfaction and quality of caregiving as well as children's degree of prematurity, morbidity, gender, cognitive functioning, and motor function as covariates. Fifteen percent of children met criteria for an anxiety disorder and another 15% for depression. Maternal depressive symptoms increased the odds of children developing both anxiety and depression, whereas young motherhood was associated with child anxiety and poverty with child depression. Results indicate the need for mental health assessment of children born preterm during their first 2 years of life and the importance of early therapeutic and tangible support to vulnerable mothers and children.

Remembering the romantic past: Autobiographical memory functions and romantic relationship quality

Do the reasons why we think about our memories and share them with others have implications for our romantic relationship quality? In the present series of studies (total N = 1,102), we aimed to answer this question by examining whether the self (e.g., creating a stable self-image), social (e.g., connecting with others) and directive (e.g., guiding future behavior) functions of regular memories (Study 1, Study 2) and relationship memories (Study 2, Study 3) were related to intimacy and satisfaction in the current relationship. We further investigated these links when relationship memories were shared with the romantic partner (Study 3). Results showed no association between the self-reported uses of memory for regular events and relationship quality. In contrast, the social function served by the relationship events was positively associated, and the directive function was negatively associated with intimacy and relationship satisfaction. When the memories were to be shared with the partner, only social function was related, positively, to the relationship satisfaction. Findings were discussed in terms of the importance of considering the self-reported reasons for recalling an event and understanding of the contextual factors in remembering.

Parents' Personality-Disorder Symptoms Predict Children's Symptoms of Anxiety and Depressive Disorders - a Prospective Cohort Study

Personality disorder (PD) symptomatology is characterized by interpersonal problems and emotional dysregulation, which may affect offspring of parents with PD symptoms. Notably though, studies are needed to discern (i) whether parental PDs forecast symptoms of psychiatric disorders in offspring during their childhood years and (ii) whether such prospective relations obtain after accounting for common causes (e.g., genetics, common methods). To address these issues, we followed up a community sample of Norwegian children biennially from ages 4 to 8 (n = 594), using a semi-structured psychiatric interview (PAPA/CAPA) to capture DSM-IV defined symptoms of emotional disorders. Parental symptoms of personality disorders were captured by the DSM-IV and ICD-10 Personality Questionnaire (DIP-Q), whereas depression and anxiety in caregivers were measured using the Beck Depression Inventory -II and Beck Anxiety Inventory, respectively. Upon applying a hybrid fixed and random effects method that takes into account all unmeasured time-invariant confounders, we found that: (i) Parental symptoms of DSM-IV defined Cluster A and C were related to symptoms of anxiety disorders in offspring two years later, even after accounting for children's initial levels of anxiety and parental anxiety, whereas (ii) Parental DSM-IV Cluster B predicted symptoms of depressive disorders in children, adjusted for children's initial levels of depression and parental depression. Clinical implications of the results are discussed.

Longitudinal associations between mother-child conflict and child internalizing problems in mid-childhood

Several aspects of mother-child relationships are associated with children's internalizing problems. We examined longitudinal associations between mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems in middle childhood. Specifically, we examined whether conflict and children's internalizing problems predict each other longitudinally in a sample of children from 3rd through 6th grade (N = 1,364) and their mothers using a cross-lagged panel model with random intercepts. In line with expectations, we found stable between-family differences in both mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems. Contrary to expectations, we did not find that mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems showed significant cross-lagged associations. However, mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems had correlated errors at each wave, indicating that these two constructs covary with each other concurrently at multiple times across development, independent of stable between-family associations (i.e., as one increases, so does the other, and vice versa). The results of this study point to the importance of using statistical approaches that can disentangle between-family differences from within-family processes. In future studies, shorter time scales (e.g., weeks or months) may better capture dynamic associations between parent-child conflict and internalizing problems.

Father-figure Presence and Externalizing and Internalizing Problems in Mexican and Dominican American Children

This study examined whether various types of father-figure presence in Mexican (n = 414)- and Dominican- American (n = 336) households measured at baseline predicted child mental health functioning one year later. Results of linear regression analyses showed that the impact of household structure on child functioning was significant and differed by ethnicity. For Mexican-American children, residing with a step-father or other adult male predicted increased externalizing problems compared to children residing their biological father. For Dominican-American children, residing with no father figure predicted increased externalizing problems compared to children residing with a biological father. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Family Emotional Climate and Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Little research has examined family emotional climate in the context of having a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The goal of the current study was to determine how the emotional quality of family subsystems (parent-child and parent couple relationships, for both mothers and fathers) combine to create various classes of family emotional climate and to identify predictors of class membership in 148 families of children with ASD. The emotional quality of family subsystems was assessed using Five Minute Speech Samples from mothers and fathers. In total, 148 families of children with ASD (86% male) aged 6-13 years were included in analyses. About one-third of parents did not have a college degree and more than two-thirds were of non-Hispanic White origin. Latent class analysis revealed that 43% of the sample was characterized by high levels of warmth and low levels of criticism in both the parent-child and parent couple relationships; 12% of the sample was characterized by low warmth and high criticism in both sets of relationships; and the rest of the sample was divided among three additional classes of emotional climate characterized by different configurations of warmth and criticism across both sets of relationships. Parent level of broader autism phenotype and child emotional and behavioral problems were associated with emotional climate class membership. Implications for interventions are discussed.

Family Emotional Climate and Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Little research has examined family emotional climate in the context of having a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The goal of the current study was to determine how the emotional quality of family subsystems (parent-child and parent couple relationships, for both mothers and fathers) combine to create various classes of family emotional climate and to identify predictors of class membership in 148 families of children with ASD. The emotional quality of family subsystems was assessed using Five Minute Speech Samples from mothers and fathers. In total, 148 families of children with ASD (86% male) aged 6-13 years were included in analyses. About one-third of parents did not have a college degree and more than two-thirds were of non-Hispanic White origin. Latent class analysis revealed that 43% of the sample was characterized by high levels of warmth and low levels of criticism in both the parent-child and parent couple relationships; 12% of the sample was characterized by low warmth and high criticism in both sets of relationships; and the rest of the sample was divided among three additional classes of emotional climate characterized by different configurations of warmth and criticism across both sets of relationships. Parent level of broader autism phenotype and child emotional and behavioral problems were associated with emotional climate class membership. Implications for interventions are discussed.

Couple Interaction and Child Social Competence: The Role of Parenting and Attachment

The current study examined the association between positive couple interaction and child social competence as mediated through positive parenting and parent-child attachment security. Prospective, longitudinal data came from 209 mothers, fathers, and their biological child. Information regarding observed positive couple interaction, observed positive parenting, and parent-child attachment security were assessed when the child was 2 to 4 years old, and child social competence was assessed at 5 years old. Mothers and fathers were analyzed separately in the model. Results indicated that for both mothers and fathers, positive couple interaction was indirectly associated with child social competence through positive parenting and parent-child attachment. These pathways remained statistically significant even after child social competence at age 2 to 4 was taken into account. Results suggest that couple interaction spills over into parenting which impacts parent-child attachment, which is associated with positive child developmental outcomes.

A Multicenter Cross-sectional Study on the Prevalence and Impact Factors of Hysteria Tendency in the Eastern Chinese Adolescents

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to assess the environmental impact-factors differences between female and male HT in the eastern Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

We used a multicenter, cross-sectional study to estimate the prevalence rates and the associated impact-factors of hysteria tendency (HT) in 2014. Totally, 10131 adolescents took part in the study from three School Health Surveillance System centers in three provinces of east China. The data were collected using a common protocol and questionnaire in order to identify common environment affecting in this population.

RESULTS

An overall positive rate of HT among the eastern Chinese adolescents was 13.13% (95% CI: 12.48%-13.80%) with 14.01% (95% CI: 13.05%-15.02%) for females and 12.30% (95% CI: 11.43%-13.22%) for males. Gender-stratified regression analyses revealed that 7 out of the 21 tested covariates were linked to HT only in males, while 9 out of the 21 tested covariates were associated with female HT only. Although, the models pointed out that of all independent variables, the variable -family medical history was the strongest environment impact to both the male HT (amOR=2.49, 95% CI=1.77-3.25) and female HT (amOR=2.83, 95% CI=2.19-3.68).

CONCLUSION

HT is prevalent among adolescents in the eastern Chinese adolescents. Environmental factors differences between female and male HT are significant in adolescents, and HT affects more female than male. First, prevention and therapy of HT in adolescents should focus on various social, school and family environment settings, and individual characteristics. Second, gender -respective intervention programs against HT in adolescents should be implemented.

Interplay between children's biobehavioral plasticity and interparental relationship in the origins of internalizing problems

The present study demonstrates the interplay between interparental relationship satisfaction and child plasticity in the origins of internalizing problems in 99 community mothers, fathers, and children. Our cumulative measure of plasticity integrated genetics (5-HTTLPR polymorphism), psychophysiology (skin conductance level), and observed behavior (inhibition, sadness, joy). The interaction between plasticity and interparental relationship satisfaction reflected differential susceptibility. Compared with low-plasticity peers, high-plasticity children had more internalizing problems from 5.5 to 12 years when the interparental relationship at 4.5 years was acrimonious, but fewer problems when it was harmonious. Further, almost half of the children in this sample were "differentially affected" by the interaction such that greater plasticity was associated with fewer internalizing problems when their parents had a harmonious relationship, a key feature of differential susceptibility. (PsycINFO Database Record

Parent-Child Relationships: Implementation of a Screening and Referral Program for Adolescents With Mood Disorders

Parent-child relational problems (PCRP) have been increasingly recognized as a risk factor in the development and/or progression of childhood mental illnesses. Despite many young individuals being at risk, health care providers do not specifically screen for PCRP in children diagnosed with mental illnesses. The objective of the current project was to implement a PCRP screening program in a metropolitan children's hospital and refer those with PCRP for treatment. Adolescents ages 10 to 17 presenting for admission in an inpatient pediatric psychiatric unit were screened with the PCRP semi-structured questionnaire and diagnostic criteria developed by the American Psychiatric Association's Relational Processes Workgroup. Eleven (73%) of 15 patients screened were found to have PCRP. Patients may be screened with a PCRP screening tool during biopsychosocial assessment without undue time burden on the provider. It is recommended that PCRP be added to electronic health records so providers can select PCRP in problem lists as well as formulate PCRP-sensitive care plans. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 55(11), 23-29.].

Observed parent behaviors as time-varying moderators of problem behaviors following traumatic brain injury in young children

Parent behaviors moderate the adverse consequences of pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI); however, it is unknown how these moderating effects change over time. This study examined the moderating effect of observed parent behaviors over time since injury on the relation between TBI and behavioral outcomes. Participants included children, ages 3-7 years, hospitalized for moderate (n = 52) or severe (n = 20) TBI or orthopedic injury (OI; n = 95). Parent-child dyads were videotaped during structured task and free play conditions, and parents completed child behavior ratings. Linear mixed models using a lagged, time-varying moderator analysis examined the relationship of observed parent behaviors at the baseline, 6-month, and 12-month assessments to child behavior problems at 6 months, 12 months, and 18 months postinjury, after controlling for preinjury levels of child behavior problems. The effect of TBI on behavior was exacerbated by less favorable parent behaviors, and buffered by more favorable parent behaviors, in children with severe TBI over the first 12 months postinjury. By 18 months postinjury, however, the moderating effect of parent behaviors diminished, such that children with severe TBI showed more behavior problems relative to children with moderate TBI or OI regardless of parent behaviors or in response to parent behaviors that were initially protective. The results suggest that the moderating effects of the family environment are complex and likely vary in relation to both recovery and developmental factors, with potentially important implications for targets and timing of intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record

Behavioral Couples Treatment for Substance Use Disorder: Secondary Effects on the Reduction of Youth Internalizing Symptoms

This study examined the secondary effects of Behavioral Couples Treatment (BCT) for parents with substance use disorder on youth reports of internalizing symptoms (i.e., depressive and anxiety symptoms). Participants were 59 triads (father, mothers, and youth; 32 girls, 27 boys) in which one or both parents met criteria for drug or alcohol use disorder (or both). Mothers, fathers, and youth completed pretreatment, post-intervention, and 6-month post-intervention follow-up assessments. Two piecewise latent growth models examined whether number of sessions attended was associated with parents' relationship satisfaction or its growth over time, and in turn if parents' relationship satisfaction was uniquely associated with youth depressive/anxiety symptoms or their growth over time. A significant indirect effect at post-intervention revealed the number of sessions attended contributed to decreases in youth depressive symptoms via increases in mothers' and fathers' relationship satisfaction. Mothers' relationship satisfaction uniquely mediated the relationship between number of sessions attended and youth depressive symptoms at post-intervention. With regards to fathers, there was a non-significant trend such that increases in sessions attended was associated with decreases in youth depressive symptoms post- intervention via increasing relationship satisfaction among fathers. Findings suggest that BCT may have protective secondary effects in reducing youth reports of depressive symptoms among couples in which one or both parents have substance use disorder.

Empathic Responses to Mother's Emotions Predict Internalizing Problems in Children of Depressed Mothers

Recent theories posit that empathy, typically an adaptive characteristic, may be associated with internalizing problems when children are chronically exposed to mother's depression. We tested this postulation in a sample of children (N = 82, M age = 5 years). Children witnessed their mothers express sadness, anger, and happiness during a simulated phone conversation, and researchers rated children's negative affective empathy, positive affective empathy, and information-seeking (cognitive empathy) in response to their mother's emotions. The chronicity of mother's depression during the child's lifetime moderated associations between children's empathy and internalizing problems. As predicted, all three empathy measures were related to greater mother-rated internalizing problems in children of chronically (i.e., 2-3 years) depressed mothers. Greater positive empathy was related to lower internalizing problems in children of nondepressed mothers. Positive empathy may contribute to adaptive processes when mothers are not depressed, and positive, negative, and cognitive empathy may contribute to maladaptive processes when mothers are chronically depressed.

Risk factors for comorbid oppositional defiant disorder in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is highly prevalent in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Individuals with both ADHD and ODD (ADHD + ODD) show a considerably worse prognosis compared with individuals with either ADHD or ODD. Therefore, identification of risk factors for ADHD + ODD is essential and may contribute to the development of (early) preventive interventions. Participants were matched for age, gender, and ADHD-subtype (diagnostic groups), and did not differ in IQ. Predictors included pre- and perinatal risk factors (pregnancy duration, birth weight, maternal smoking during pregnancy), transgenerational factors (parental ADHD; parental warmth and criticism in diagnostic groups), and postnatal risk factors (parental socioeconomic status [SES], adverse life events, deviant peer affiliation). Three models were assessed, investigating risk factors for ADHD-only versus controls (N = 86), ADHD + ODD versus controls (N = 86), and ADHD + ODD versus ADHD-only (N = 90). Adverse life events and parental ADHD were risk factors for both ADHD + ODD and ADHD-only, and more adverse life events were an even stronger risk factor for comorbid ODD compared with ADHD-only. For ADHD + ODD, but not ADHD-only, parental criticism, deviant peer affiliation, and parental SES acted as risk factors. Maternal smoking during pregnancy acted as minor risk factor for ADHD-only, while higher birth weight acted as minor risk factor for ADHD + ODD. No effects of age were present. Findings emphasise the importance of these factors in the development of comorbid ODD. The identified risk factors may prove to be essential in preventive interventions for comorbid ODD in ADHD, highlighting the need for parent-focused interventions to take these factors into account.

Higher and Lower Order Factor Analyses of the Temperament in Middle Childhood Questionnaire

The Temperament in Middle Childhood Questionnaire (TMCQ) is a widely used parent-report measure of temperament. However, neither its lower nor higher order structures has been tested via a bottom-up, empirically based approach. We conducted higher and lower order exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) of the TMCQ in a large ( N = 654) sample of 9-year-olds. Item-level EFAs identified 92 items as suitable (i.e., with loadings ≥.40) for constructing lower order factors, only half of which resembled a TMCQ scale posited by the measure's authors. Higher order EFAs of the lower order factors showed that a three-factor structure (Impulsivity/Negative Affectivity, Negative Affectivity, and Openness/Assertiveness) was the only admissible solution. Overall, many TMCQ items did not load well onto a lower order factor. In addition, only three factors, which did not show a clear resemblance to Rothbart's four-factor model of temperament in middle childhood, were needed to account for the higher order structure of the TMCQ.