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Pimenta LSE, de Mello CB, Benedetto LMD, Soares DCDQ, Kulikowski LD, Dantas AG, Melaragno MI, Kim CA. Neuropsychological Profile of 25 Brazilian Patients with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome: Effects of Clinical and Socioeconomic Variables. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:595. [PMID: 38790224 PMCID: PMC11121403 DOI: 10.3390/genes15050595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is associated with a heterogeneous neurocognitive phenotype, which includes psychiatric disorders. However, few studies have investigated the influence of socioeconomic variables on intellectual variability. The aim of this study was to investigate the cognitive profile of 25 patients, aged 7 to 32 years, with a typical ≈3 Mb 22q11.2 deletion, considering intellectual, adaptive, and neuropsychological functioning. Univariate linear regression analysis explored the influence of socioeconomic variables on intellectual quotient (IQ) and global adaptive behavior. Associations with relevant clinical conditions such as seizures, recurrent infections, and heart diseases were also considered. Results showed IQ scores ranging from 42 to 104. Communication, executive functions, attention, and visuoconstructive skills were the most impaired in the sample. The study found effects of access to quality education, family socioeconomic status (SES), and caregiver education level on IQ. Conversely, age at diagnosis and language delay were associated with outcomes in adaptive behavior. This characterization may be useful for better understanding the influence of social-environmental factors on the development of patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, as well as for intervention processes aimed at improving their quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Claudia Berlim de Mello
- Departament of Psychobiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo 04024-002, Brazil;
| | | | - Diogo Cordeiro de Queiroz Soares
- Genetics Unit, Instituto da Criança, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil; (D.C.d.Q.S.); (L.D.K.); (C.A.K.)
| | - Leslie Domenici Kulikowski
- Genetics Unit, Instituto da Criança, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil; (D.C.d.Q.S.); (L.D.K.); (C.A.K.)
| | - Anelisa Gollo Dantas
- Genetics Division, Department of Morphology and Genetics, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo 04023-062, Brazil; (A.G.D.); (M.I.M.)
| | - Maria Isabel Melaragno
- Genetics Division, Department of Morphology and Genetics, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo 04023-062, Brazil; (A.G.D.); (M.I.M.)
| | - Chong Ae Kim
- Genetics Unit, Instituto da Criança, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil; (D.C.d.Q.S.); (L.D.K.); (C.A.K.)
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Everaert E, Vorstman JAS, Selten IS, Slieker MG, Wijnen F, Boerma TD, Houben ML. Executive functioning in preschoolers with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and the impact of congenital heart defects. J Neurodev Disord 2023; 15:15. [PMID: 37173621 PMCID: PMC10181926 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-023-09484-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Executive functioning (EF) is an umbrella term for various cognitive functions that play a role in monitoring and planning to effectuate goal-directed behavior. The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), the most common microdeletion syndrome, is associated with a multitude of both somatic and cognitive symptoms, including EF impairments in school-age and adolescence. However, results vary across different EF domains and studies with preschool children are scarce. As EF is critically associated with later psychopathology and adaptive functioning, our first aim was to study EF in preschool children with 22q11DS. Our second aim was to explore the effect of a congenital heart defects (CHD) on EF abilities, as CHD are common in 22q11DS and have been implicated in EF impairment in individuals with CHD without a syndromic origin. METHODS All children with 22q11DS (n = 44) and typically developing (TD) children (n = 81) were 3.0 to 6.5 years old and participated in a larger prospective study. We administered tasks measuring visual selective attention, visual working memory, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. The presence of CHD was determined by a pediatric cardiologist based on medical records. RESULTS Analyses showed that children with 22q11DS were outperformed by TD peers on the selective attention task and the working memory task. As many children were unable to complete the broad EF task, we did not run statistical analyses, but provide a qualitative description of the results. There were no differences in EF abilities between children with 22q11DS with and without CHDs. CONCLUSION To our knowledge, this is the first study measuring EF in a relatively large sample of young children with 22q11DS. Our results show that EF impairments are already present in early childhood in children with 22q11DS. In line with previous studies with older children with 22q11DS, CHDs do not appear to have an effect on EF performance. These findings might have important implications for early intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Everaert
- Institute for Language Sciences, Utrecht University, Trans 10, 3512 JK, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
- Department of Pediatrics, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Lundlaan 6, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Jacob A S Vorstman
- Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, Research Institute, and Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 1R8, Canada
| | - Iris S Selten
- Institute for Language Sciences, Utrecht University, Trans 10, 3512 JK, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Pediatrics, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Lundlaan 6, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn G Slieker
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, PO Box 85090, 3508 AB, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Wijnen
- Institute for Language Sciences, Utrecht University, Trans 10, 3512 JK, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tessel D Boerma
- Institute for Language Sciences, Utrecht University, Trans 10, 3512 JK, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Pediatrics, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Lundlaan 6, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Michiel L Houben
- Department of Pediatrics, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Lundlaan 6, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Ilen L, Feller C, Eliez S, Schneider M. Increased affective reactivity to daily social stressors is associated with more severe psychotic symptoms in youths with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Psychol Med 2023; 53:1-12. [PMID: 36727503 PMCID: PMC10600937 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291722004019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased reactivity to minor stressors is considered a risk factor for psychosis, especially in vulnerable individuals. In the present study, we investigated affective and psychotic stress reactivity as well as its link with psychotic symptoms and psychopathology in youths with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), a neurogenetic condition associated with a high risk for psychosis. METHODS A 6-day ecological momentary assessment protocol was used to assess perceived daily-life stress as well as affective and psychotic reactivity to stress in participants with 22q11DS (n = 38, age = 18.4) and healthy controls (HC; n = 53, age = 19.1). Psychotic symptoms, general psychopathology, and coping strategies were also assessed through clinical interviews and questionnaires. RESULTS Participants with 22q11DS reported higher levels of perceived social stress (b = 0.21, p = 0.036) but lower levels of activity-related stress (b = -0.31, p = 0.003) in their daily lives compared to HC. The groups did not differ in affective or psychotic reactivity to stress, but individuals with 22q11DS who reported increased affective reactivity to social stressors showed more severe positive psychotic symptoms (rs = 0.505, p = 0.008). Finally, avoidance coping strategies moderated the association between stress and negative affects. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest an increased vulnerability for daily social stress in youths with 22q11DS, and link elevated social stress reactivity to heightened psychotic symptom severity. Given the high risk for psychosis in 22q11DS, interventions should focus on reducing social stress and developing adaptive coping strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ilen
- Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Clémence Feller
- Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Eliez
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Lab Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maude Schneider
- Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Snihirova Y, Linden DEJ, van Amelsvoort T, van der Meer D. Environmental Influences on the Relation between the 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome and Mental Health: A Literature Review. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13112003. [PMID: 36360240 PMCID: PMC9690390 DOI: 10.3390/genes13112003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is a clinically heterogeneous genetic syndrome, associated with a wide array of neuropsychiatric symptoms. The clinical presentation is likely to be influenced by environmental factors, yet little is known about this. Here, we review the available research literature on the role of the environment in 22q11DS. We find that within-patient design studies have mainly investigated the role of parental factors, stress, and substance use, reporting significant effects of these factors on the clinical profile. Case-control studies have been less successful, with almost no reports of significant moderating effects of the environment. We go on to hypothesize which specific environmental measures are most likely to interact with the 22q11 deletion, based on the genes in this region and their involvement in molecular pathways. We end by discussing potential reasons for the limited findings so far, including modest sample sizes and limited availability of environmental measures, and make recommendations how to move forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yelyzaveta Snihirova
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6211 LK Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - David E. J. Linden
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6211 LK Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Therese van Amelsvoort
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6211 LK Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Dennis van der Meer
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6211 LK Maastricht, The Netherlands
- NORMENT, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital & Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0315 Oslo, Norway
- Correspondence:
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Pituitary volume in adolescents with non-suicidal self-injury: Preliminary evidence for alterations in pituitary maturation. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2022; 138:105662. [PMID: 35101833 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), typically observed in the context of various mental disorders, represents a highly prevalent and serious problem among adolescents. Based on studies linking NSSI with stress, alterations in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning have been suggested to contribute to the development and maintenance of this behavior. While research has mainly focused on cortisol - the main hormonal output of this system - to our knowledge, no study has examined pituitary gland volume (PGV) - an alternative approach of assessing HPA axis functionality that is less state-dependent - in adolescents engaging in NSSI. METHODS Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was performed among n = 35 adolescents (aged 12-17 years) fulfilling the diagnostic criteria for NSSI disorder according to DSM-5 and n = 31 age-matched healthy controls; PGV was obtained by manual tracing. To test for group differences - our primary aim - a hierarchical linear regression model was computed, controlling for several potential confounding variables. Since adolescence reflects a time period for significant brain development - including changes in PGV - we also tested for an age-dependent group effect. In a second step, we aimed to investigate whether differences in PGV are accounted for by the experience of childhood adversity or psychopathology. Finally, following an exploratory approach, the dimensional association between PGV and various clinical characteristics (e.g., frequency of NSSI) were explored. RESULTS No evidence was found for overall volumetric differences between healthy control participants and adolescents engaging in NSSI (p > 0.05) - recognizing that small effect size differences could not be detected in the present study - but group membership significantly interacted with age in predicting PGV (p = 0.02). Particularly, while PGV increased linearly with age in healthy controls (B = 61.39, SE = 14.94, p < 0.01), no corresponding association was found in NSSI patients (B = 16.83, SE = 12.20, p = 0.17). PGV was not related to adverse experiences during childhood and none of the clinical characteristics (e.g., frequency of NSSI) significantly correlated with PGV (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION These results provide preliminary evidence for alterations in pituitary maturation in adolescents engaging in NSSI, although replication in longitudinal studies with larger samples is warranted.
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Ilen L, Feller C, Eliez S, Micol E, Delavari F, Sandi C, Zanoletti O, Schneider M. Exploring associations between diurnal cortisol, stress, coping and psychopathology in adolescents and young adults with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2022; 9:100103. [PMID: 35755923 PMCID: PMC9216249 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2021.100103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is a neurogenetic condition associated to a high risk for psychiatric disorders, including psychosis. Individuals with 22q11DS are thought to experience increased levels of chronic stress, which could lead to alterations in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA)-axis functioning. In the current study, we investigated for the first time diurnal salivary cortisol profiles in adolescents and young adults with 22q11DS as well as their link with stress exposure, coping strategies and psychopathology, including psychotic symptoms. Methods Salivary cortisol was collected from adolescents and young adults with 22q11DS (n = 30, age = 19.7) and matched healthy controls (HC; n = 36, age = 18.5) six times a day for two days. Exposure to stressful life events, including peer victimization, coping strategies and general psychopathology were assessed with questionnaires. Psychotic symptoms and psychiatric comorbidities were evaluated with clinical interviews. Results We observed similar daily levels and diurnal profiles of salivary cortisol in adolescents and young adults with 22q11DS compared to HCs. However, participants with 22q11DS reported less frequent exposure to stress than HCs. In 22q11DS, we observed a significant association between the use of non-adaptive coping strategies and the severity of psychotics symptoms. Cortisol level was not associated to severity of psychotic symptoms, but elevated cortisol awakening response (CAR) was found in participants with 22q11DS with higher levels of general psychopathology. Conclusions Our results do not support earlier propositions of altered HPA-axis functioning in 22q11DS but highlight the need to further investigate diurnal cortisol as an indicator of HPA-axis functioning and its link with (earlier) stress exposure and psychopathology in this population. Interventions should target the development of adaptive coping skills in preventing psychosis in 22q11DS. Adolescents and young adults with 22q11DS report reduced exposure to stress. Non-adaptive coping is linked with the severity of psychotic symptoms in 22q11DS. Youth with 22q11DS show typical diurnal cortisol profiles. Elevated cortisol awakening response is related to greater general psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ilen
- Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Corresponding author. Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences University of Geneva 40, Boulevard du Pont-d’Arve, 1205, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Clémence Feller
- Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Eliez
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Lab Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Eva Micol
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Lab Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Farnaz Delavari
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Lab Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Behavioral Genetics Laboratory, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Olivia Zanoletti
- Behavioral Genetics Laboratory, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maude Schneider
- Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Impact of Equine-Assisted Interventions on Heart Rate Variability in Two Participants with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome: A Pilot Study. CHILDREN 2021; 8:children8111073. [PMID: 34828786 PMCID: PMC8617898 DOI: 10.3390/children8111073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
People with disabilities due to genetic origin often present high levels of stress: non-pharmacological interventions such as Equine-Assisted Interventions (EAI) may be a useful strategy. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate stress levels in two participants with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome diagnosis, immediately after carrying out the EAI. A single case experimental design methodology was chosen due to the small sample size. Two participants with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome, a rare disease, with different comorbidities were included. The present study considered the EAI as the independent variable while the Heart Rate Variability (HRV) represented the dependent one, as HRV is considered an indicator of stress level. Measurements were performed before and after carrying out the interventions. The results showed an HRV increase in one of the participants and an increase in the arousal level evidenced by a decrease in his HRV. After having carried out the program, EAI seems to cause an impact on the activation level of the participants depending on the typology and nature of the intervention. However, these results should be treated with caution due to the small sample size. This study is a pilot to test the feasibility of the proposed interventions on the variable under study.
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Learning from atypical development: A systematic review of executive functioning in children and adolescents with the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2021.100962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Nakayama N, Ejiri H, Arakawa N, Makino T. Stress and anxiety in nursing students between individual and peer simulations. Nurs Open 2021; 8:776-783. [PMID: 33570282 PMCID: PMC7877161 DOI: 10.1002/nop2.680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of high-fidelity simulation practice as an educational tool is becoming increasingly prevalent in nursing education. Despite the learning effects of simulation practice, students have been shown to experience high levels of stress and anxiety during simulation. In recent years, peer learning has been defined as an acquisition of knowledge and skills through active support and support among equal or equal peers and has been shown to be an effective educational intervention for clinical health science students. AIM The purpose of this study was to incorporate peer learning into simulation learning and to clarify the differences between stress and anxiety during personal and peer simulations. METHOD Third-grade undergraduate students in a four-year course at two nursing universities participated in this study. In this study, the simulated patient was a 53-year-old man who had undergone gastrectomy for the treatment of gastric cancer. The scenario was that the patient had completely recovered consciousness in the operating room, and his tracheal tube had been removed one hour before the students examined him. Stress while simulation training was evaluated with heart rate variability. Anxiety was evaluated by the STAI after the simulations were complete. RESULTS Personal simulation practice (personal group; n = 50) and peer simulation practice (peer group, n = 59) was conducted. The personal group included 7 male students, and the peer group included 12 male students; the difference in male proportion was not significant. At the first patient assessment phase, stress of heart rate variability components at the peer group significantly increased relative to that of the personal. In addition, the personal had a significantly higher state anxiety score after simulation than the peer. CONCLUSION This study shows that in the face-to-face scene involving vital sign measurements, the presence of peers did not objectively alleviate stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natsuki Nakayama
- Department of Integrated Health SciencesGraduate School of MedicineNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
| | - Harumi Ejiri
- Department of NursingCollege of Life and Health SciencesChubu UniversityKasugaiJapan
| | - Naoko Arakawa
- Department of NursingCollege of Life and Health SciencesChubu UniversityKasugaiJapan
| | - Tsuneko Makino
- Department of NursingCollege of Life and Health SciencesChubu UniversityKasugaiJapan
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Quach TT, Stratton HJ, Khanna R, Kolattukudy PE, Honnorat J, Meyer K, Duchemin AM. Intellectual disability: dendritic anomalies and emerging genetic perspectives. Acta Neuropathol 2021; 141:139-158. [PMID: 33226471 PMCID: PMC7855540 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-020-02244-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Intellectual disability (ID) corresponds to several neurodevelopmental disorders of heterogeneous origin in which cognitive deficits are commonly associated with abnormalities of dendrites and dendritic spines. These histological changes in the brain serve as a proxy for underlying deficits in neuronal network connectivity, mostly a result of genetic factors. Historically, chromosomal abnormalities have been reported by conventional karyotyping, targeted fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and chromosomal microarray analysis. More recently, cytogenomic mapping, whole-exome sequencing, and bioinformatic mining have led to the identification of novel candidate genes, including genes involved in neuritogenesis, dendrite maintenance, and synaptic plasticity. Greater understanding of the roles of these putative ID genes and their functional interactions might boost investigations into determining the plausible link between cellular and behavioral alterations as well as the mechanisms contributing to the cognitive impairment observed in ID. Genetic data combined with histological abnormalities, clinical presentation, and transgenic animal models provide support for the primacy of dysregulation in dendrite structure and function as the basis for the cognitive deficits observed in ID. In this review, we highlight the importance of dendrite pathophysiology in the etiologies of four prototypical ID syndromes, namely Down Syndrome (DS), Rett Syndrome (RTT), Digeorge Syndrome (DGS) and Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). Clinical characteristics of ID have also been reported in individuals with deletions in the long arm of chromosome 10 (the q26.2/q26.3), a region containing the gene for the collapsin response mediator protein 3 (CRMP3), also known as dihydropyrimidinase-related protein-4 (DRP-4, DPYSL4), which is involved in dendritogenesis. Following a discussion of clinical and genetic findings in these syndromes and their preclinical animal models, we lionize CRMP3/DPYSL4 as a novel candidate gene for ID that may be ripe for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tam T Quach
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
- INSERM U1217/CNRS, UMR5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | | | - Rajesh Khanna
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85724, USA
| | | | - Jérome Honnorat
- INSERM U1217/CNRS, UMR5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes and Autoimmune Encephalitis, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
- SynatAc Team, Institut NeuroMyoGène, Lyon, France
| | - Kathrin Meyer
- The Research Institute of Nationwide Children Hospital, Columbus, OH, 43205, USA
- Department of Pediatric, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Anne-Marie Duchemin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
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Schneider M, Vaessen T, van Duin EDA, Kasanova Z, Viechtbauer W, Reininghaus U, Vingerhoets C, Booij J, Swillen A, Vorstman JAS, van Amelsvoort T, Myin-Germeys I. Affective and psychotic reactivity to daily-life stress in adults with 22q11DS: a study using the experience sampling method. J Neurodev Disord 2020; 12:30. [PMID: 33187471 PMCID: PMC7666493 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-020-09333-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is a genetic disorder associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders. Vulnerability for psychopathology has been related to an increased reactivity to stress. Here, we examined affective states, perceived stress, affective and psychotic reactivity to various sources of environmental stress using the experience sampling method (ESM), a structured diary technique allowing repeated assessments in the context of daily life. METHODS Adults with 22q11DS (n = 31; age, 34.1 years) and matched healthy controls (HCs; n = 24; age, 39.9 years) were included. ESM was used to assess affective states, perceived stress, and stress reactivity. Data were analyzed using multilevel regression models. RESULTS Adults with 22q11DS displayed overall higher levels of negative affect but comparable levels of positive affect compared to HCs. Higher levels of perceived stress were reported by individuals with 22q11DS. Comparable affective and psychotic reactivity in relation to all types of environmental stress was observed between the two groups. CONCLUSION The results point toward higher levels of negative affect and differences in the perception of daily hassles in 22q11DS but no difference in affective or psychotic reactivity to stress. This study contributes to the growing literature regarding the impact of stress on the development of psychopathology in the 22q11DS population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maude Schneider
- Clinical Psychology Unit for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Boulevard du Pont d'Arve 40, 1205, Geneva, Switzerland. .,Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 33 Bus 7001 (Blok H), 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Thomas Vaessen
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 33 Bus 7001 (Blok H), 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Esther D A van Duin
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Minderbroedersberg 4-6, Maastricht, 6211 LK, The Netherlands.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94224, Science Park 904, Amsterdam, 1090 GE, The Netherlands
| | - Zuzana Kasanova
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 33 Bus 7001 (Blok H), 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wolfgang Viechtbauer
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Minderbroedersberg 4-6, Maastricht, 6211 LK, The Netherlands
| | - Ulrich Reininghaus
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Minderbroedersberg 4-6, Maastricht, 6211 LK, The Netherlands.,Centre for Epidemiology and Public Health, Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, David Goldberg Centre, King's College London, 18 De Crespigny Park, London, SE5 8AF, UK.,Department of Public Mental Health, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Square J5, 68159, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Claudia Vingerhoets
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, 1105 AZ, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Booij
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, 1105 AZ, The Netherlands
| | - Ann Swillen
- Department of Human Genetics, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.,Center for Human Genetics, Hospital Gasthuisberg, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jacob A S Vorstman
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, 555 University Avenue, Burton Wing, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1X8, Canada.,Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, 686 Bay St., Toronto, Ontario, M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Thérèse van Amelsvoort
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Minderbroedersberg 4-6, Maastricht, 6211 LK, The Netherlands
| | - Inez Myin-Germeys
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 33 Bus 7001 (Blok H), 3000, Leuven, Belgium
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12
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Linton SR, Popa AM, Luck SJ, Bolden K, Carter CS, Niendam TA, Simon TJ. Neural and behavioral measures suggest that cognitive and affective functioning interactions mediate risk for psychosis-proneness symptoms in youth with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2020; 182:1615-1630. [PMID: 32319730 PMCID: PMC9196260 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.61596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral components of chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q), caused by the most common human microdeletion, include cognitive and adaptive functioning impairments, heightened anxiety, and an elevated risk of schizophrenia. We investigated how interactions between executive function and the largely overlooked factor of emotion regulation might relate to the incidence of symptoms of psychotic thinking in youth with 22q. We measured neural activity with event-related potentials (ERPs) in variants of an inhibitory function (Go/No-Go) experimental paradigm that presented affective or non-affective stimuli. The study replicated inhibition impairments in the 22q group that were amplified in the presence of stimuli with negative, more than positive affective salience. Importantly, the anterior N2 conflict monitoring ERP significantly increased when youth with 22q viewed angry and happy facial expressions, unlike the typically developing participants. This suggests that youth with 22q may require greater conflict monitoring resources when controlling their behavior in response to highly salient social signals. This evidence of both behavioral and neurophysiological differences in affectively influenced inhibitory function suggests that frequently anxious youth with 22q may struggle more with cognitive control in emotionally charged social settings, which could influence their risk of developing symptoms of psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha R Linton
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Abbie M Popa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Steven J Luck
- Center for Mind and Brain and Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Khalima Bolden
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,Imaging Research Center, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Cameron S Carter
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,Imaging Research Center, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Tara A Niendam
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,Imaging Research Center, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Tony J Simon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
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13
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Seese RR. Working Memory Impairments in Cerebellar Disorders of Childhood. Pediatr Neurol 2020; 107:16-23. [PMID: 32276741 DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2020.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum is a crucial center for motor control and integration. Increasing evidence supports the notion that the cerebellum is also involved in nonmotor functions. Along these lines, multiple cerebellar disorders of childhood and adulthood are associated with behavioral and cognitive symptoms, including impairments in memory. One form of memory commonly affected in cerebellar disorders is working memory, which uses attention to manipulate information that is immediately available to execute cognitive tasks. This article reviews the literature illustrating that working memory impairments are frequently observed in acquired, congenital, and genetic/developmental cerebellar disorders of childhood. Functional neuroimaging studies demonstrate that working memory tasks engage many posterior regions of the cerebellar hemispheres and vermis. Thus, the cerebellum acts as one important node in the working memory circuit, and when the cerebellum is involved in childhood disorders, deficits in working memory commonly occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald R Seese
- Division of Child Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
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14
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Sandini C, Chambaz M, Schneider M, Armando M, Zöller D, Schaer M, Sandi C, Van De Ville D, Eliez S. Pituitary dysmaturation affects psychopathology and neurodevelopment in 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2020; 113:104540. [PMID: 31958652 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.104540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS) confers strongly increased genetic risk for multiple psychiatric disorders. Similarly to the general population, rates of psychiatric comorbidity suggest that common disease mechanisms are shared across dimensions of psychopathology. Such pleiotropic disease mechanisms remain however currently unknown. We hypothesized that pituitary dysmaturation, indicative of HPA-axis dysregulation, could correlate to reduced tolerance to daily life stressors and reflect pleiotropic risk factor for psychopathology. Moreover HPA-axis dysregulation could affect atypical cortical and hippocampal development previously described in 22q11DS. METHODS Pituitary volume, hippocampal volume and cortical thickness measures were obtained from T1-weighted MRI images in a large longitudinal cohort of youth with 22q11DS (115 subjects, 260 scans, age-range = 5.4-31.6) and healthy controls (151 subjects, 280 scans, age-range = 5.1-32.3). We explored effects of pituitary dysmaturation on tolerance to stress, psychopathology and neurodevelopment employing mixed-models linear regression. Associations of pituitary and cortical development were correlated with the expression pattern of glucocorticoid receptor gene NR3C1 obtained from the Allen-Human-Brain-Atlas. RESULTS We observed aberrant pituitary developmental trajectories in 22q11DS, with volumetric reductions emerging by young-adulthood (P = 0.0006). Longitudinal pituitary decline was associated with to reduced tolerance to stress (P = 0.04), higher overall psychopathology (P = 0.0003) and increased risk of psychiatric comorbidity (P = 0.02). Moreover, pituitary decline correlated with blunted growth of the right hippocampus (P = 0.03) and to increased cortical thinning of mostly temporal and orbitofrontal regions mediated by NR3C1 gene expression. CONCLUSION Atypical pituitary development could reflect progressive extinction of HPAA due to chronic hyper-activation, in agreement with existing biochemical evidence in 22q11DS. HPAA dysregulation could represent and endophenotype that confers pleiotropic vulnerability to psychopathology and atypical neurodevelopment in 22q11DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrado Sandini
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Laboratory, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Maëlle Chambaz
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Laboratory, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maude Schneider
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Laboratory, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland; Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Research Group Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marco Armando
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Laboratory, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Zöller
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Laboratory, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland; Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marie Schaer
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Laboratory, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dimitri Van De Ville
- Department of Radiology and Medical Informatics, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Eliez
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Laboratory, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, University of Geneva School of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
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15
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Cognitive deficits in childhood, adolescence and adulthood in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and association with psychopathology. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:53. [PMID: 32066691 PMCID: PMC7026075 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-0736-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11.2DS) is associated with high risk of psychiatric disorders and cognitive impairment. It remains unclear to what extent key cognitive skills are associated with psychopathology, and whether cognition is stable over time in 22q11.2DS. 236 children, adolescents and adults with 22q11.2DS and 106 typically developing controls were recruited from three sites across Europe. Measures of IQ, processing speed, sustained attention, spatial working memory and psychiatric assessments were completed. Cognitive performance in individuals was calculated relative to controls in different age groups (children (6-9 years), adolescents (10-17 years), adults (18+ years)). Individuals with 22q11.2DS exhibited cognitive impairment and higher rates of psychiatric disorders compared to typically developing controls. Presence of Autism Spectrum Disorder symptoms was associated with greater deficits in processing speed, sustained attention and working memory in adolescents but not children. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents and psychotic disorder in adulthood was associated with sustained attention impairment. Processing speed and working memory were more impaired in children and adults with 22q11.2DS respectively, whereas the deficit in sustained attention was present from childhood and remained static over developmental stages. Psychopathology was associated with cognitive profile of individuals with 22q11.2DS in an age-specific and domain-specific manner. Furthermore, magnitude of cognitive impairment differed by developmental stage in 22q11.2DS and the pattern differed by domain.
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16
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van Duin EDA, Vaessen T, Kasanova Z, Viechtbauer W, Reininghaus U, Saalbrink P, Vingerhoets C, Hernaus D, Booij J, Swillen A, Vorstman J, van Amelsvoort T, Myin-Germeys I. Lower cortisol levels and attenuated cortisol reactivity to daily-life stressors in adults with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 106:85-94. [PMID: 30959234 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is a genetic disorder associated with neurodevelopmental, anxiety and mood disorders, as well as an increased risk for developing psychosis. Cortisol levels and stress reactivity reflect hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis activity, and are believed to be altered in individuals that often experience daily-life stress, depression, and psychotic symptoms. However, it is unknown whether individuals with 22q11DS display an altered stress reactivity. METHODS We included 27 adults with 22q11DS (mean age: 34.1 years, 67% female) and 24 age and sex-matched healthy controls (HC; mean age: 39.9 years, 71% female) into an experience sampling study. Throughout 6 consecutive days, we measured participants' subjective stress related to current activity and at the same time collected salivary cortisol samples. Multilevel regression models were used to analyze cortisol reactivity to activity-related stress. RESULTS Diurnal cortisol levels were significantly lower in the 22q11DS group compared to HCs (B=-1.03, p < 0.001). 22q11DS adults displayed significantly attenuated cortisol reactivity to activity-related stress compared to HCs (B = -0.04, p = 0.026). Post-hoc exploratory analysis revealed that these results were independent from 22q11DS psychiatric diagnosis or medication use. CONCLUSION These results indicate that adults with 22q11DS have lower cortisol levels and attenuated cortisol response to daily stress, possibly resulting from an increased sensitization of the HPA-axis. This suggests that alterations in HPA-axis functioning, previously reported in several psychiatric disorders including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), psychotic disorder, and mood disorder, also appear to be present in adults with 22q11DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther D A van Duin
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas Vaessen
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Zuzana Kasanova
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wolfgang Viechtbauer
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Ulrich Reininghaus
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Centre for Epidemiology and Public Health, Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Peter Saalbrink
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Claudia Vingerhoets
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Dennis Hernaus
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Jan Booij
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ann Swillen
- Department of Human Genetics, KU Leuven - Leuven University, Leuven, Belgium; Center for Human Genetics, Hospital Gasthuisberg, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jacob Vorstman
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Thérèse van Amelsvoort
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Inez Myin-Germeys
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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17
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Souchay C, Dubourg L, Ballhausen N, Schneider M, Cerf C, Schnitzspahn K, Faivre L, Kliegel M, Eliez S. Time-based prospective memory in children and adolescents with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Clin Neuropsychol 2017; 32:981-992. [DOI: 10.1080/13854046.2017.1403652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Céline Souchay
- Laboratoire de Psychologie et Neurocognition, University of Grenoble, Grenoble, France
| | - Lydia Dubourg
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Lab, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nicola Ballhausen
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maude Schneider
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Lab, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Charline Cerf
- Centre de Génétique & FHU-TRANSLAD, Hospital and University of Dijon, Dijon, France
| | | | - Laurence Faivre
- Centre de Génétique & FHU-TRANSLAD, Hospital and University of Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - Matthias Kliegel
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Eliez
- Developmental Imaging and Psychopathology Lab, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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