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Bhattacharjee M, Manoharan S, Sathisaran U, Tamatam A, Perumal E. MAO inhibiting phytochemicals from the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2024; 42:3887-3905. [PMID: 37243713 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2023.2216298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Glycyrrhizin, a natural compound that is substantially present in Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gg) root. Monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) inhibitor is used for the treatment of several important neuropsychological diseases like Parkinson's disease. Gg is known to possess psychoactive properties which relates to its MAO inhibitory potential. This study sought to determine the MAO inhibition property of glycyrrhizin from Gg root extract. The Aqueous extract containing glycyrrhizin was isolated from the root of Gg and characterized using TLC, HPLC, and LC-MS techniques. In silico docking was conducted using Extra precision Glide 2018, Schrödinger docking suite. In addition, the pharmacokinetic properties of the compounds were predicted using SwissADME. The binding energies of the glycyrrhizin correlated well with their in vitro MAO inhibitory potential. Glycyrrhizin exhibited potent inhibitory activity towards MAOB whereas, an aqueous extract of Gg root inhibits both A and B forms of MAO enzyme. Further, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation showed that liquiritigenin and methoxyglabridin showed higher stability than other inhibitor compounds from the Gg root extract. These observations suggest that the phytochemicals from the Gg root extract have potent MAO inhibition properties, which can be exploited for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monojit Bhattacharjee
- Defence Research and Development Organisation, Bharathiar University Center for Life Sciences (DRDO-BU CLS), Bharathiar University Campus, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Suryaa Manoharan
- Molecular Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Umamaheswari Sathisaran
- Unit of Toxicology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
| | - Anand Tamatam
- Nutrition, Biochemistry and Toxicology Division, Defence Food Research Laboratory (DRDO-DFRL), Mysore, India
| | - Ekambaram Perumal
- Defence Research and Development Organisation, Bharathiar University Center for Life Sciences (DRDO-BU CLS), Bharathiar University Campus, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
- Molecular Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Gözcü S, Polat HK, Gültekin Y, Ünal S, Karakuyu NF, Şafak EK, Doğan O, Pezik E, Haydar MK, Aytekin E, Kurt N, Laçin BB. Formulation of hesperidin-loaded in situ gel for ocular drug delivery: a comprehensive study. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2024. [PMID: 38385802 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.13407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Allergic conjunctivitis is one of the most common eye disorders. Different drugs are used for its treatment. Hesperidin is an active substance isolated from Citrus sinensis L. (Rutaceae) fruit peels, with known anti-inflammatory activity but low solubility. It was complexed with cyclodextrin and encapsulated in situ gel to extend its duration in the eye. RESULTS The optimized formulation comprised 1% hesperidin, 1.5% hydroxyethyl cellulose, and 16% poloxamer 407. The viscosity at 25 °C was 492 ± 82 cP, and at 35 °C it was 8875 ± 248 cP, the pH was 7.01 ± 0.03, gelation temperature was 34 ± 1.3 °C, and gelation time was 33 ± 1.2 s. There was a 66% in vitro release in the initial 2 h, with a burst effect. A lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibition test determined that hesperidin was active at high doses on leukotyrens seen in the body in allergic diseases. In cell-culture studies, the hesperidin cyclodextrin complex loaded in situ gel, BRN9-CD (poloxamer 16%, hydroxy ethyl cellulose (HEC) 1.5%), enhanced cell viability in comparison with the hesperidin solution. It was determined that BRN9-CD did not cause any irritation in the ocular tissues in the Draize test. CONCLUSION The findings of this study demonstrate the potential of the in situ gel formulation of hesperidin in terms of ease of application and residence time on the ocular surface. Due to its notable LOX inhibition activity and positive outcomes in the in vivo Draize test, it appears promising for incorporation into pharmaceutical formulations. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sefa Gözcü
- Department of Pharmacognosy Faculty of Pharmacy, Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University, Erzincan, Turkey
| | - Heybet Kerem Polat
- Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health, Turkish Medicines and Medical Devices Agency, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Yakup Gültekin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Sedat Ünal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Nasıf Fatih Karakuyu
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey
| | - Esra Köngül Şafak
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Osman Doğan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Esra Pezik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University, Erzincan, Turkey
| | - Muhammet Kerim Haydar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University, Erzincan, Turkey
| | - Eren Aytekin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nihat Kurt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat, Turkey
| | - Burak Batuhan Laçin
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
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Xu L, Lin W, Zheng Y, Wang Y, Chen Z. The Diverse Network of Brain Histamine in Feeding: Dissect its Functions in a Circuit-Specific Way. Curr Neuropharmacol 2024; 22:241-259. [PMID: 36424776 PMCID: PMC10788888 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666221117153755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Feeding is an intrinsic and important behavior regulated by complex molecular, cellular and circuit-level mechanisms, one of which is the brain histaminergic network. In the past decades, many studies have provided a foundation of knowledge about the relationship between feeding and histamine receptors, which are deemed to have therapeutic potential but are not successful in treating feeding- related diseases. Indeed, the histaminergic circuits underlying feeding are poorly understood and characterized. This review describes current knowledge of histamine in feeding at the receptor level. Further, we provide insight into putative histamine-involved feeding circuits based on the classic feeding circuits. Understanding the histaminergic network in a circuit-specific way may be therapeutically relevant for increasing the drug specificity and precise treatment in feeding-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyu Xu
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenkai Lin
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yanrong Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhong Chen
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
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Zhang FX, Xie XH, Guo ZX, Wang HD, Li H, Wu KLK, Chan YS, Li YQ. Evaluating proxies for motion sickness in rodent. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2023; 15:107-115. [PMID: 38204574 PMCID: PMC10776324 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2023.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Motions sickness (MS) occurs when the brain receives conflicting sensory signals from vestibular, visual and proprioceptive systems about a person's ongoing position and/or motion in relation to space. MS is typified by symptoms such as nausea and emesis and implicates complex physiological aspects of sensations and sensorimotor reflexes. Use of animal models has been integral to unraveling the physiological causality of MS. The commonly used rodents (rat and mouse), albeit lacking vomiting reflex, reliably display phenotypic behaviors of pica (eating of non-nutritive substance) and conditioned taste aversion (CTAver) or avoidance (CTAvoi) which utilize neural substrates with pathways that cause gastrointestinal malaise akin to nausea/emesis. As such, rodent pica and CTAver/CTAvoi have been widely used as proxies for nausea/emesis in studies dealing with neural mechanisms of nausea/emesis and MS, as well as for evaluating therapeutics. This review presents the rationale and experimental evidence that support the use of pica and CTAver/CTAvoi as indices for nausea and emesis. Key experimental steps and cautions required when using rodent MS models are also discussed. Finally, future directions are suggested for studying MS with rodent pica and CTAver/CTAvoi models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Xing Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, School of Basic Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, PR China
| | - Xiao-Hang Xie
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, School of Basic Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, PR China
| | - Zi-Xin Guo
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, School of Basic Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, PR China
| | - Hao-Dong Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, School of Basic Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, PR China
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, School of Basic Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, PR China
| | - Kenneth Lap Kei Wu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ying-Shing Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yun-Qing Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, School of Basic Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, PR China
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Rahimzadeh G, Tay A, Travica N, Lacy K, Mohamed S, Nahavandi D, Pławiak P, Qazani MC, Asadi H. Nutritional and Behavioral Countermeasures as Medication Approaches to Relieve Motion Sickness: A Comprehensive Review. Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15061320. [PMID: 36986050 PMCID: PMC10052985 DOI: 10.3390/nu15061320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The mismatch in signals perceived by the vestibular and visual systems to the brain, also referred to as motion sickness syndrome, has been diagnosed as a challenging condition with no clear mechanism. Motion sickness causes undesirable symptoms during travel and in virtual environments that affect people negatively. Treatments are directed toward reducing conflicting sensory inputs, accelerating the process of adaptation, and controlling nausea and vomiting. The long-term use of current medications is often hindered by their various side effects. Hence, this review aims to identify non-pharmacological strategies that can be employed to reduce or prevent motion sickness in both real and virtual environments. Research suggests that activation of the parasympathetic nervous system using pleasant music and diaphragmatic breathing can help alleviate symptoms of motion sickness. Certain micronutrients such as hesperidin, menthol, vitamin C, and gingerol were shown to have a positive impact on alleviating motion sickness. However, the effects of macronutrients are more complex and can be influenced by factors such as the food matrix and composition. Herbal dietary formulations such as Tianxian and Tamzin were shown to be as effective as medications. Therefore, nutritional interventions along with behavioral countermeasures could be considered as inexpensive and simple approaches to mitigate motion sickness. Finally, we discussed possible mechanisms underlying these interventions, the most significant limitations, research gaps, and future research directions for motion sickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazal Rahimzadeh
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
| | - Abdullatif Tay
- PepsiCo Inc., Food Safety and Global Process Authority, 433 W Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60607, USA
- Correspondence: (A.T.); (S.M.); Tel.: +61-3-522-72599 (S.M.)
| | - Nikolaj Travica
- Food & Mood Centre, IMPACT—The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
| | - Kathleen Lacy
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
| | - Shady Mohamed
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
- Correspondence: (A.T.); (S.M.); Tel.: +61-3-522-72599 (S.M.)
| | - Darius Nahavandi
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
| | - Paweł Pławiak
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computer Science and Telecommunications, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Krakow, Poland
- Institute of Theoretical and Applied Informatics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Bałtycka 5, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Mohammadreza Chalak Qazani
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
| | - Houshyar Asadi
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
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Zhong W, Zhu J, Yi J, Zhao C, Shi Y, Kang Q, Huang J, Hao L, Lu J. Biochemical analysis reveals the systematic response of motion sickness mice to ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract's amelioration effect. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 290:115077. [PMID: 35131339 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2022.115077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE As a common medicinal and edible plant, Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) is often used for the prevention of motion sickness. However, the mechanism of its anti-motion sickness remains to be elucidated. AIM OF THE STUDY To explore novel treatment for motion sickness with less side effects, anti-motion sickness effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract (GE) and the possible molecular mechanisms were investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS The anti-motion sickness effect of ginger was evaluated through mice animal experimental models. Components of ginger that might contribute to the anti-motion sickness effect were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Subsequently, biochemical analysis integrated with serum metabolomic profiling were performed to reveal the systematic response of motion sickness mice to ginger extract's amelioration effect. RESULTS Exhaustive swimming time of mice in the GE group reached 8.9 min, which was 52.2% longer than that in the model group. Motion sickness index scores and time taken traversing balance beam of mice in the GE group were decreased by 53.2% and 38.5%, respectively. LC-MS/MS analysis suggested that various active ingredients in GE, such as gingerol, ginger oil and terpenoids, might contribute to its appealing anti-motion sickness activity. Biochemical analysis revealed that GE can relieve motion sickness through reducing histamine and acetylcholine release in vestibular system, regulating fatty acid oxidation, sugar metabolism and bile acid metabolism in mice. CONCLUSION Gavage of mice with GE can effectively relieve the symptoms of autonomic nervous system dysfunction, improve the balance and coordination ability and ameliorate the ability to complete complex work after rotation stimulation. GE has attractive potential for development and utilization as novel anti-motion sickness food or drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanlin Zhong
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Jiaqing Zhu
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
| | - Juanjuan Yi
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Changcheng Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Yanling Shi
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Qiaozhen Kang
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Jinyong Huang
- School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Limin Hao
- Institute of Quartermaster Engineering and Technology, Academy of Military Sciences PLA China, Beijing, 100010, China
| | - Jike Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
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Deshetty UM, Tamatam A, Patil MM. Menthol, a bioactive constituent of Mentha, attenuates motion sickness in mice model: Involvement of dopaminergic system. J Food Biochem 2021; 45:e13863. [PMID: 34245039 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Motion sickness (MS) occurs due to contradicting vestibular and visual inputs to the brain causing nausea and vomiting. Antidopaminergic drugs being effective in reducing MS create a path for effective therapy against MS by regulating dopamine levels. We aimed to evaluate the role of the striatum and brainstem dopamine and dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) in MS and the efficacy of menthol (MNT) to modulate dopamine and DRD2 in vitro and in vivo for possible amelioration of MS. Evaluation of efficacy of MNT to inhibit dopamine release from PC12 cells and anti-MS efficacy in BALB/c mice model was performed. Dopamine, DRD2 expression in PC12 cells, mice striatum, and brainstem were detected using HPLC-ECD, RT-PCR, and Western blot analysis, respectively. DRD2 expression increased in calcium ionophore-treated PC12 cells compared with control cells. Pretreatment with 50 μg/ml menthol decreased dopamine and DRD2 expression. Similarly, dopamine and DRD2 levels in mice striatum and brainstem of MS group (rotation induced) increased significantly compared with control group NC (no rotation). Pretreatment with menthol at 50 mg/kg concentration (rotation induced) showed decreased dopamine and DRD2 expression, thus indicating ameliorative effect on MS. Hence, we suggest that increased striatum and brainstem dopamine and DRD2 levels might lead to MS symptoms, and menthol could be used as a potent herbal alternative medicine for MS. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Antidopaminergic drugs being effective in reducing motion sickness (MS) creates a path for effective therapy against MS by regulating dopamine levels. Increased striatum and brainstem dopamine and Dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) levels might lead to the MS symptoms induced by rotation stimulation in mice model. Menthol showed a prophylactic effect on rotation-induced MS by reducing striatal and brainstem dopamine levels, DRD2 mRNA, and protein expression. Menthol could be used as an herbal alternative to antidopaminergics to minimize the associated adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uma Maheswari Deshetty
- Nutrition, Biochemistry & Toxicology Division, Defence Food Research Laboratory, Mysore, India
| | - Anand Tamatam
- Nutrition, Biochemistry & Toxicology Division, Defence Food Research Laboratory, Mysore, India
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Zhong W, Shahbaz O, Teskey G, Beever A, Kachour N, Venketaraman V, Darmani NA. Mechanisms of Nausea and Vomiting: Current Knowledge and Recent Advances in Intracellular Emetic Signaling Systems. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5797. [PMID: 34071460 PMCID: PMC8198651 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nausea and vomiting are common gastrointestinal complaints that can be triggered by diverse emetic stimuli through central and/or peripheral nervous systems. Both nausea and vomiting are considered as defense mechanisms when threatening toxins/drugs/bacteria/viruses/fungi enter the body either via the enteral (e.g., the gastrointestinal tract) or parenteral routes, including the blood, skin, and respiratory systems. While vomiting is the act of forceful removal of gastrointestinal contents, nausea is believed to be a subjective sensation that is more difficult to study in nonhuman species. In this review, the authors discuss the anatomical structures, neurotransmitters/mediators, and corresponding receptors, as well as intracellular emetic signaling pathways involved in the processes of nausea and vomiting in diverse animal models as well as humans. While blockade of emetic receptors in the prevention of vomiting is fairly well understood, the potential of new classes of antiemetics altering postreceptor signal transduction mechanisms is currently evolving, which is also reviewed. Finally, future directions within the field will be discussed in terms of important questions that remain to be resolved and advances in technology that may help provide potential answers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixia Zhong
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 East Second Street, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; (W.Z.); (G.T.); (V.V.)
| | - Omar Shahbaz
- School of Medicine, Universidad Iberoamericana, Av. Francia 129, Santo Domingo 10203, Dominican Republic;
| | - Garrett Teskey
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 East Second Street, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; (W.Z.); (G.T.); (V.V.)
| | - Abrianna Beever
- Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; (A.B.); (N.K.)
| | - Nala Kachour
- Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; (A.B.); (N.K.)
| | - Vishwanath Venketaraman
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 East Second Street, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; (W.Z.); (G.T.); (V.V.)
- Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; (A.B.); (N.K.)
| | - Nissar A. Darmani
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 East Second Street, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; (W.Z.); (G.T.); (V.V.)
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