6-Gingerol alleviates ectopic lipid deposition in skeletal muscle by regulating CD36 translocation and mitochondrial function

Ectopic lipid deposition (ELD) and mitochondrial dysfunction are common causes of metabolic disorders in humans. Consuming too much fructose can result in mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic disorders. 6-Gingerol, the main component of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), has been proven to alleviate metabolic disorders. This study seeks to examine the effects of 6-gingerol on metabolic disorders caused by fructose and uncover the underlying molecular mechanisms. In this study, the results showed that 6-Gingerol ameliorated high-fructose-induced metabolic disorders. Moreover, it inhibited CD36 membrane translocation, increased CD36 expression in the mitochondria, and decreased the O-GlcNAc modification of CD36 and OGT expression in vitro and vivo. In addition, 6-Gingerol enhanced the performance of mitochondria in the skeletal muscle and boosted the respiratory capability of L6 myotubes. This study provides a theoretical basis and new insights for the development of lipid-lowering drugs in clinical practice.

Beneficial Effects of 6-Gingerol on Fatty Pancreas Disease in High-Fat High-Fructose Diet-Induced Metabolic Syndrome Rat Model

OBJECTIVE

To examine the effects of 6-gingerol (6-G) in overcoming fatty pancreas disease of high-fat high-fructose (HFHF) diet-induced metabolic syndrome in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 5 groups. The healthy-control group (normal diet, n = 5) received a standard diet. The HFHF group (HFHF; n = 20) received an HFHF diet and a single-dose intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (22 mg/kgBW) at week 8. Metabolic syndrome-confirmed rats received 6-G at doses of 50 (6-G 50, n = 5), 100 (6-G 100, n = 5), and 200 (6-G 200, n = 5) mg/kgBW, respectively, for 8 weeks. All rats were killed at week 16. Pancreatic tissue and blood samples were obtained for histological and amylase analysis.

RESULTS

The serum amylase, MDA, mRNA of TNF-α, and IL-6 significantly increased, whereas GPx decreased in the HFHF group as compared with the normal diet group, respectively. Rats in the HFHF group showed pancreatic lipid accumulation and a decreased mean number of α- and β-cells in the pancreas. Meanwhile, all rats in 6-G at all dose groups showed improvement in all parameters and histopathological scores for lipid accumulation.

CONCLUSIONS

6-Gingerol could attenuate pancreatic lipid accumulation and improve the cell number of α- and β-cells in the pancreas, leading to improvements in fatty pancreas disease.

In vitro Evaluation of the Calcification Inhibitory Properties of Policosanol, Genistein, and Vitamin D (Reduplaxin®) either Alone or in Combination

INTRODUCTION

The process of vascular calcification has severe clinical consequences in a number of diseases, including diabetes, atherosclerosis, and end-stage renal disease. In the present study, we investigated the effect of policosanol (Poli), genistein (Gen), and vitamin D (VitD) separately and in association to evaluate the possible synergistic action on inorganic phosphate (Pi)-induced calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs).

METHODS

Primary human VSMCs were cultured with either growth medium or growth medium supplemented with calcium and phosphorus (calcification medium) in combination with Poli, Gen, and VitD. Alizarin Red staining, mineralization, and the protein expression of RUNX2 and superoxide dismutase-2 (SOD2) were investigated.

RESULTS

All three substances tested were effective at reducing osteogenic differentiation of VSMCs in a dose-dependent manner. Poli+Gen, Poli+VitD, Gen+VitD treatment induced a greater inhibition of calcification and RUNX2 expression compared to single compounds treatments. Moreover, the association of Poli+Gen+VitD (Reduplaxin®) was more effective at inhibiting VSMCs mineralization and preventing the increase in RUNX2 expression induced by calcification medium but not modified SOD2 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

The association of Pol, Gen, and VitD (Reduplaxin®) has an additive inhibitory effect on the calcification process of VSMCs induced in vitro by a pro-calcifying medium.

Time-Dependent Differences in the Effects of Oleic Acid and Oleyl Alcohol on the Human Skin Barrier

Oleic acid and oleyl alcohol are commonly used permeation and penetration enhancers to facilitate topical drug delivery. Here, we aimed to better understand the mechanism of their enhancing effects in terms of their interactions with the human skin barrier using diclofenac diethylamine (DIC-DEA), a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug for topical pain management. Oleic acid promoted DIC-DEA permeation through ex vivo human skin more rapidly than oleyl alcohol (both applied at 0.75%) due to fluidization of stratum corneum lipids as revealed by infrared spectroscopy. After 12 h, the effect of these enhancers on DIC-DEA permeation leveled off, fluidization was no longer evident, and skin permeabilization was mainly due to the formation of fluid enhancer-rich domains. Contrary to oleyl alcohol, oleic acid adversely affected two indicators of the skin barrier integrity, transepidermal water loss and skin electrical impedance. The content of oleyl alcohol in the stratum corneum was lower than that of oleic acid (even 12 h after the enhancers were removed from the skin surface), but it caused higher DIC-DEA retention in both epidermis and dermis compared to oleic acid. The effects of oleyl alcohol and oleic acid on DIC-DEA permeation and retention in the skin were similar after a single and repeated application (4 doses every 12 h). Thus, oleyl alcohol offers several advantages over oleic acid for topical drug delivery.

Effect of 23 % low-sodium salt applied to Chinese modified DASH diet on cerebrovascular function in patients with hypertension and type 2 diabetes: a pilot study

Introduction

Aim: to investigate the effects of low sodium formula salt combined with the Chinese Modified Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet on cerebrovascular function in patients with hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Methods: an eight-week single-arm trial was conducted in 66 patients with hypertension and type 2 diabetes to investigate effects of low sodium formula salt (potassium chloride 56 %, sodium chloride 23 %, 5 g/day) combined with Chinese Modified DASH diet on cerebrovascular function (measured by transcranial Doppler sonography), indicators of chronic diseases (blood pressure, blood glucose and blood lipids) and urinary excretion. The above indicators were performed before and after intervention. Results: fifty-nine subjects completed the study. Peak systolic velocity, mean flow velocity, end-diastolic velocity, pulsatility index and resistance index of internal cerebral artery and vertebral artery decreased significantly (p < 0.05); pulsatility index and resistance index of anterior cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery decreased significantly (p < 0.05); and end-diastolic velocity and pulsatility index of basilar artery decreased significantly (p < 0.05). Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, fasting blood glucose and postprandial blood glucose decreased significantly (p < 0.001; p < 0.001; p < 0.001; p < 0.001). Blood pressure and blood glucose control rates increased significantly (p < 0.001). Conclusions: based on the study, 23 % low-sodium formula combined with CM-DASH diet pattern can improve cerebrovascular function in community patients with hypertension complicated with diabetes and has a good short-term benefit of blood pressure and glucose control.

Cuban Policosanol (Raydel®) Potently Protects the Liver, Ovary, and Testis with an Improvement in Dyslipidemia in Hyperlipidemic Zebrafish: A Comparative Study with Three Chinese Policosanols

Many policosanols from different sources, such as sugar cane and rice bran, have been marketed worldwide to improve blood lipid profiles. But so far, no comparative study has commenced elucidating the effect of different policosanols to improve the blood lipid profile and other beneficial effects. This study compared the efficacy of four different policosanols, including one sugar cane wax alcohol from Cuba (Raydel®) and three policosanols from China (Xi'an Natural sugar cane, Xi'an Realin sugar cane, and Shaanxi rice bran), to treat dyslipidemia in hyperlipidemic zebrafish. After 12 weeks of consumption of each policosanol (final 0.1% in diet, wt/wt) and a high-cholesterol diet (HCD, final 4%, wt/wt), the Raydel policosanol group and the Xi'an Natural policosanol group showed the highest survivability, of approximately 81%. In contrast, the Xi'an Realin policosanol and the Shaanxi policosanol groups showed 57% and 67% survivability, respectively. Among the five HCD groups, the Raydel policosanol group showed the lowest serum total cholesterol (TC, p < 0.001 versus HCD control) and triglyceride (p < 0.001 versus HCD control), with the highest percentage of high-density lipoproteins-cholesterol in TC. The Raydel policosanol group also showed the lowest serum aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase levels, with the least infiltration of inflammatory cells and interleukin-6 production in hepatocytes with a marked reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and fatty liver changes. In the ovary, the Raydel policosanol group also showed the highest content of mature vitellogenic oocytes with the lowest production of reactive oxygen species and cellular apoptosis in ovarian cells. In the testes, the Raydel policosanol group also showed the healthiest morphology for spermatogenesis, with the lowest interstitial area and reactive oxygen species production in testicular cells. Conclusively, among the tested policosanols, Cuba (Raydel®) policosanol exhibited a comparatively better effect in maintaining zebrafish body weight, survivability, blood lipid profile, hepatic function biomarkers, fatty liver changes, ROS generation, inflammation, and restoration of the cell morphology in ovaries and testes affected by the HCD consumption.

Potential Therapeutic Effects of Policosanol from Insect Wax on Caenorhabditis elegans Models of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide. The standard treatments for PD focus on symptom relief rather than attempting to address the underlying degenerative processes completely. This study aimed to evaluate the potential therapeutic effects of policosanol derived from insect wax (PIW) by investigating improvements in disease symptoms represented in Caenorhabditis elegans models of PD. For our assessments, we used the following three models: NL5901, which is a transgenic model for α-synuclein aggregation; wild-type N2 induced with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA); and 6-OHDA-induced BZ555 as a model for loss of dopaminergic neurons (DNs). Specifically, we examined the effects of PIW treatment on α-synuclein aggregation, the loss of DNs, lipid abundance, and the lifespan of treated organisms. Further, we examined treatment-related changes in the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), as well as the mRNA production profiles of relevant genes. A 10 µg/mL dose of PIW reduced the aggregation of α-synuclein in NL5901 and suppressed the loss of DNs in 6-OHDA-induced BZ555. Overall, PIW treatment decreased ROS and MDA levels, restored lipid abundance, and prolonged the lifespans of worms in all the three models, which may be associated with changes in the expression profiles of genes related to cell survival and oxidative stress response pathways. Our findings show that PIW alleviated the symptoms of PD in these models, possibly by regulating the stress responses initiated by injuries such as α-synuclein aggregation or 6-OHDA treatment.

Revisiting the therapeutic potential of gingerols against different pharmacological activities

The rhizomes of ginger have been in use in many forms of traditional and alternative medicines. Besides being employed as condiment and flavoring agent, it is used in the treatment of nausea, osteoarthritis, muscle pain, menstrual pain, chronic indigestion, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer. Ginger rhizome contains volatile oils, phenolic compounds and resins, and characterization studies showed that [6]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol, and [6]-paradol are reported to be the pharmacologically active components. Gingerol is a major chemical constituent found as volatile oil in the rhizomes of ginger. It has several medicinal benefits and used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, nausea, cancer, and diabetes. Many studies have been carried out in various parts of the world to isolate and standardize gingerol for their use as a complementary medicine. The present review summarizes wide range of research studies on gingerol and its pharmacological roles in various metabolic diseases.

Effect of drying and processing on diterpenes and other chemical constituents of ginger

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is a perennial plant widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and its rhizomes are sometimes processed for use in traditional medicine. In Japan, "ginger" (Shokyo in Japanese) and "processed ginger" (Kankyo in Japanese) are defined as crude drugs derived from ginger rhizomes, which have different medicinal properties due to complex changes in their chemical composition during processing. The effects of processing on gingerols and shogaols are well known, but for other phytochemicals remain unclear. Therefore, the present study prepared dried ginger and processed ginger derived from three ginger cultivars (Kintoki, Kogane, and Tosa ginger) and examined the effects of drying and processing on multiple secondary metabolites. Drying showed only a limited effect on ginger chemical constituents and significantly reduced [6]-gingerol content in Tosa ginger. In contrast, processing altered content of numerous metabolites, such as terpenes and gingerol-related compounds, in addition to those gingerols and shogaols. Notably, processing reduced labdane diterpene content, including labdadienedial, aframodial, and galanolactone in all ginger cultivars. Our results show galanolactone with anti-emetic activity was abundant in dried ginger and decreased following processing, highlighting different uses between "ginger" and "processed ginger" in traditional medicine. Overall, we comprehensively clarified the impact of drying and processing on terpenes and gingerol-related compounds. These findings help reveal the varying medicinal properties among crude drugs prepared from Z. officinale.

Cardioprotective Effects of 6-Gingerol against Alcohol-Induced ROS-Mediated Tissue Injury and Apoptosis in Rats

The present study investigated the cardioprotective properties of 6-gingerol against alcohol-induced ROS-mediated cardiac tissue damage in rats. Experiments were conducted on 4 groups of rats, orally treated with control, 6-gingerol (10 mg/kg body weight), alcohol (6 g/kg body weight) and combination of 6-gingerol plus alcohol for two-month. In the results, we found 6-ginger treatment to alcohol-fed rats substantially suppressed ROS production in cardiac tissue. Alcohol-induced elevated 8-OHDG and protein carbonyls which represent oxidative modification of DNA and proteins were completely reversed by 6-gingerol. This was further endorsed by restored superoxide dismutase and catalase activities with 6-gingerol against alcohol-induced loss. The elevated cardiac biomarkers (CK-MB, cTn-T, cTn-I) and dyslipidemia in alcohol-intoxicated rats was significantly reversed by 6-gingerol. Furthermore, alcohol-induced apoptosis characterized by overexpression of cytochrome C, caspase-8 and caspase-9 was diminished with 6-gingerol treatment. Transmission electron microscope images conferred the cardioprotective properties of 6-gingerol as we have seen less structural derangements in mitochondria and reappearance of myofilaments. Our findings conclude that 6-ginger effectively protect alcohol-induced ROS-mediated cardiac tissue damage, which may be due to its potent antioxidant efficacy. Therefore, 6-gingerol could be a potential therapeutic molecule that can be used in the treatment of alcohol-induced myocardial injury.

The anti-oxidative potential of ginger extract and its constituent on meat protein isolate under induced Fenton oxidation

Ginger extract has been reported to possess antioxidant properties. However, components isolated from ginger have been rarely reported to inhibit oxidation. Herein, the antioxidant properties of ginger and purified components derived from it (6-gingerol, zingerone, rutin, quercetin, and kaempferol) were confirmed by using HPLC and were further used to investigate its effect on lamb meat. Myofibrillar proteins isolated (MPI) from lamb meat were incubated with ginger and its constituents under induced Fenton oxidation (1.0 mmol/L FeCl3, 0.1 mmol/L Asc, and 20 mmol/L H2O2) for 1, 3,5, and 7 h. Incubating meat protein isolate in the absence of ginger extract or its components resulted in a substantial drop in sulfhydryl groups, an increase in protein carbonyl content, and a corresponding increase in TBARS content. However, ginger extract and its constituents demonstrated antioxidant properties, which might be attributed to their hydroxyl groups and suitable solubilizing side chains. Overall, ginger extract exhibited the highest antioxidant capabilities of all treated samples, suggesting that ginger extracts may be used as a natural antioxidant in meat and lipid/protein-containing processed products. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: Ginger extract is also frequently used as a herbal medicine due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antibacterial qualities. Nonvolatile pungent chemicals found in ginger, such as gingerol, shogaols, paradols, and zingerone, as well as kaempferol, rutin, and other phenolic compounds, have been confirmed in ginger extract and have been shown to have antioxidant action driven by free radical elimination. Despite these findings, ginger extract and its pure constituent components have seldom been shown to have the ability to slow protein and lipid oxidation in meat and meat-related products. The effect of ginger extracts on the oxidative stability of myofibriller protein isolate has never been investigated. Exploiting the phenolic content of ginger extract may result in a discovery that would have a huge influence on both the ginger and meat industries as well as other food processing sectors. The first aim of our study was to confirm the presence of six selected phenolic compounds (rutin, kaempferol, 6-gingerol, zingerone, naringenin, and quercetin) in ginger as reported by literature, and the second objective was to determine the efficacy of ginger extracts and its purified constituents on myofibrillar protein isolate treated under induced Fenton oxidation.

Effect of Ginger on Inflammatory Diseases

Ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and lupus erythematosus are some of common inflammatory diseases. These affections are highly disabling and share signals such as inflammatory sequences and immune dysregulation. The use of foods with anti-inflammatory properties such as ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) could improve the quality of life of these patients. Ginger is a plant widely used and known by its bioactive compounds. There is enough evidence to prove that ginger possesses multiple biological activities, especially antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about the bioactive compounds of ginger and their role in the inflammatory process and its signaling pathways. We can conclude that the compounds 6-shoagol, zingerone, and 8-shoagol display promising results in human and animal models, reducing some of the main symptoms of some inflammatory diseases such as arthritis. For lupus, 6-gingerol demonstrated a protective attenuating neutrophil extracellular trap release in response to phosphodiesterase inhibition. Ginger decreases NF-kβ in psoriasis, and its short-term administration may be an alternative coadjuvant treatment. Ginger may exert a function of supplementation and protection against cancer. Furthermore, when receiving chemotherapy, ginger may reduce some symptoms of treatment (e.g., nausea).

Marine Alga Ulva fasciata-Derived Molecules for the Potential Treatment of SARS-CoV-2: An In Silico Approach

SARS-CoV-2 is the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. This in silico study aimed to elucidate therapeutic efficacies against SARS-CoV-2 of phyco-compounds from the seaweed, Ulva fasciata. Twelve phyco-compounds were isolated and toxicity was analyzed by VEGA QSAR. Five compounds were found to be nonmutagenic, noncarcinogenic and nontoxic. Moreover, antiviral activity was evaluated by PASS. Binding affinities of five of these therapeutic compounds were predicted to possess probable biological activity. Fifteen SARS-CoV-2 target proteins were analyzed by the AutoDock Vina program for molecular docking binding energy analysis and the 6Y84 protein was determined to possess optimal binding affinities. The Desmond program from Schrödinger’s suite was used to study high performance molecular dynamic simulation properties for 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol—6Y84 for better drug evaluation. The ligand with 6Y84 had stronger binding affinities (−5.9 kcal/mol) over two standard drugs, Chloroquine (−5.6 kcal/mol) and Interferon α-2b (−3.8 kcal/mol). Swiss ADME calculated physicochemical/lipophilicity/water solubility/pharmacokinetic properties for 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, showing that this therapeutic agent may be effective against SARS-CoV-2.

Promising influences of gingerols against metabolic syndrome: A mechanistic review

Metabolic syndrome is an inflammatory disorder characterized by diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, and hypertension. Globally, this disease is increasing, especially in developed countries. Supposedly, herbal treatments for this disease likely have fewer adverse effects than chemical medications. Thus, they can be suitable options among the available chemical treatments. Ginger has been used as a spice and medicinal plant in traditional medicine and cooking. This herbal compound and its derivatives, such as 6-gingerol, have shown promising effects on various molecular aspects of metabolic syndrome. In this study, we reviewed and discussed the significant impacts of gingerol, a derivative of ginger, on metabolic syndrome through various mechanisms. The benefits of 6-gingerol include its effects on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which prevent diabetes, lipid regulating effect (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, PPARs), as well as its effects on enzymes and proteins preventing hyperlipidemia caused by a high-fat diet. In addition, 6-gingerol has anti-atherosclerosis and anti-hypertension effects through several molecular mechanisms. The current review will discuss various effects of 6-gingerol on molecular pathways involved in diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, and hypertension as characterizing features of metabolic syndrome and suggests that 6-gingerol can be a potential treatment agent for metabolic syndrome and shed light on a higher requirement for more pre-clinical and clinical investigations.

Gingerol fractions bioactivity against butanone cytotoxicity induced in newborns of mice

OBJECTIVE

Accumulating studies have demonstrated the potential activity of ginger in treating and managing several diseases but little is known about its protective effects against teratogenicity of chemical toxins. Thus, in this study, we have evaluated the protective effect of gingerol fraction (GF) against methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) induced teratogenic effects in newborns of mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 30 mature females and fifteen male mice (Mus musculus) weighing 25-30 g were included in this study. The pregnant mice were divided into three groups (10 mice each); control group (GI, mice received normal drinking water; NDW), methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) treated group (GII, received MEK at a dose of 350 mg/kg body weight in NDW), and GF treated group (GIII; mice received GF at a dose of 25 mg/kg in NDR). Histological analysis, cellular oxidative, and antioxidant enzymes, fibrosis, and apoptosis of brain, liver, and kidney tissues were estimated by histological and immunoassay techniques.

RESULTS

In this study, the treatment of pregnant female mice with gingerol fractions (GF) at a dose of 25 mg/kg significantly protected all tissues organs of mothers and their offspring against the teratogenic effects induced by MEK at a dose of 350 mg/kg. A significant improvement in cellular antioxidant enzymes GSH, SOD, and peroxidase activities along with a reduction in the initiation of cellular oxidative free radicals (TBARS) was reported in GF treated mice compared to mice intoxicated with MEK (350 mg/kg). In addition, a significant reduction in cellular fibrosis and apoptosis was reported in all tissues of mothers and their offspring's following treatment with GF. HPLC analysis of ginger extracts estimated a set of polyphenolic compounds such [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol, and [6]-shogaol which are responsible for the antioxidant, anti-fibrotic, and anti-apoptotic protective effects against teratogenic effects of MEK.

CONCLUSIONS

Gingerol fractions (GF) at a dose of 25 mg/kg significantly protected all tissues organs of mothers and their offspring against the teratogenic effects induced by MEK at a dose of 350 mg/kg. The beneficial effects of ginger phenolic compounds; [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol, and [6]-shogaol against teratogenic effects of MEK proceeded through their antioxidant, anti-fibrotic, and anti-apoptotic properties.

Effects of ginger extract and its major component 6-gingerol on anti-tumor property through mitochondrial biogenesis in CD8+ T cells

Ginger extract (GE) and its major component 6-gingerol (6G) have been reported to exert anti-tumor effects in various cancers. The underlying mechanism, however, has not been well demonstrated. Here, we have focused on the relationship between promotion of mitochondrial biogenesis in tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells induced by GE and 6G and their cytotoxic effect. The results showed that GE induced 56% inhibition of tumor growth in Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) xenograft mouse model and 6G induced 33% (25 mg/kg) and 37% (50 mg/kg) inhibition. GE increased mitochondrial mass of CD8+ T cells in tumor and draining lymph nodes (DLNs) significantly, while 6G had no significant effect. GE and 6G both had no significant influence on histopathological changes of liver and kidney in mice. In the co-culture system of CTLL-2 cells and LLC cells, GE enhanced the cytotoxicity of CTLL-2 cells against LLC cells by 14% and 19% at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 mg/ml, respectively. 6G did not promote cytotoxicity of CTLL-2 cells. GE increased mitochondrial mass at 5 and 10 mg/ml and mtDNA copy number and ATP production at 2.5, 5, 10 mg/ml in CTLL-2 cells. 6G promoted mtDNA copy number at 50, 100, 150 µM and mitochondrial mass and ATP production at 25, 50, 100, 150 µM in CTLL-2 cells. These results suggest that promotion of mitochondrial biogenesis and function in tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells may play an essential role in GE-induced inhibition of tumor growth. The current results perfect the mechanism of anti-tumor effect of ginger, which is beneficial for further application in cancer management. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Ginger, as a worldwide food seasoning and herbal medicine in traditional Chinese medicine, has been reported to possess anti-tumor efficacy. To our knowledge, it is the first time to focus on ginger's ability of promoting mitochondrial biogenesis in tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells to explore the mechanism of its anti-tumor effect. Our observations demonstrate that ginger inhibits tumor growth via promoting mitochondrial biogenesis and function of T cells. The present study links food to anti-tumor immunity and provides impetus to investigate and design dietary supplements for cancer management.

Active Compounds in Zingiber officinale as Possible Redox Inhibitors of 5-Lipoxygenase Using an In Silico Approach

5-Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) converts arachidonic acid to lipidic inflammatory mediators such as leukotrienes (LTs). In diseases such as asthma, LTs contribute to a physiopathology that could be reverted by blocking 5-LOX. Natural products with anti-inflammatory potential such as ginger have been used as nutraceuticals since ancient times. 6-Gingerol and 6-shogaol are the most abundant compounds in the ginger rhizome; they possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and chemopreventive properties. In the present study, 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol structures were analyzed and compared with two commercial 5-LOX inhibitors (zileuton and atreleuton) and with other inhibitor candidates (3f, NDGA, CP 209, caffeic acid, and caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE)). The pharmacokinetics and toxicological properties of 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, and the other compounds were evaluated. Targeted molecular coupling was performed to identify the optimal catalytic pocket for 5-LOX inhibition. The results showed that 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol follow all of the recommended pharmacokinetic parameters. These compounds could be inhibitors of 5-LOX because they present specific interactions with the residues involved in molecular inhibition. The current study demonstrated the potential of 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol as anti-inflammatory agents that inhibit 5-LOX, as they present a high level of performance in the toxicological analysis and could be catabolized by the cytochrome p450 enzymatic complex; however, 6-gingerol was superior in safety compared to 6-shogaol.

Biochemical analysis reveals the systematic response of motion sickness mice to ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract's amelioration effect

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As a common medicinal and edible plant, Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) is often used for the prevention of motion sickness. However, the mechanism of its anti-motion sickness remains to be elucidated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To explore novel treatment for motion sickness with less side effects, anti-motion sickness effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract (GE) and the possible molecular mechanisms were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-motion sickness effect of ginger was evaluated through mice animal experimental models. Components of ginger that might contribute to the anti-motion sickness effect were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Subsequently, biochemical analysis integrated with serum metabolomic profiling were performed to reveal the systematic response of motion sickness mice to ginger extract's amelioration effect.

RESULTS

Exhaustive swimming time of mice in the GE group reached 8.9 min, which was 52.2% longer than that in the model group. Motion sickness index scores and time taken traversing balance beam of mice in the GE group were decreased by 53.2% and 38.5%, respectively. LC-MS/MS analysis suggested that various active ingredients in GE, such as gingerol, ginger oil and terpenoids, might contribute to its appealing anti-motion sickness activity. Biochemical analysis revealed that GE can relieve motion sickness through reducing histamine and acetylcholine release in vestibular system, regulating fatty acid oxidation, sugar metabolism and bile acid metabolism in mice.

CONCLUSION

Gavage of mice with GE can effectively relieve the symptoms of autonomic nervous system dysfunction, improve the balance and coordination ability and ameliorate the ability to complete complex work after rotation stimulation. GE has attractive potential for development and utilization as novel anti-motion sickness food or drugs.

6-gingerol ameliorates metabolic disorders by inhibiting hypertrophy and hyperplasia of adipocytes in high-fat-diet induced obese mice

OBJECTIVES

Accumulating studies revealed that 6-gingerol, a compound extracted mainly from ginger, treats obesity by preventing hyperlipidemia in vivo induced by high-fat-diet (HFD). The present study intends to further evaluate the efficacy of 6-gingerol in the treatment of obesity and investigate its potential mechanism.

METHODS

Obese mice were established by HFD induction. Bioinformatic analysis was used to predict the possible pathways enrolled by the application of 6-gingerol. Body weight and the levels of blood glucose and lipids were examined and analyzed for the evaluation of the therapeutic effect of 6-gingerol. The size and amounts as well as the status of adipocytes were determined by histological staining. The expression levels of related proteins in adipose tissue were assessed by immunohistochemical staining, immunofluorescent staining, and Western blot analysis. In addition, the expression levels of related mRNA were assessed by RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

HFD induced obesity was significantly curbed by 6-gingerol treatment. Here inhibition mechanism of 6-gingerol is demonstrated on excessive hypertrophy and hyperplasia of adipocytes in white adipose tissue (WAT), which may be related to the regulation of adipocytokines, such as PPARγ, C/EBPα, FABP4 and adiponectin, and the TLR3/IL-6/JAK1/STAT3 axis. Moreover, 6-gingerol treatment suppressed the expressions of IL-1β and CD68 in the liver and AKT/INSR/IRS-1 in epididymal WAT.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that 6-gingerol could alleviate metabolic inflammation in the liver and insulin resistance to treat obesity. The mechanism is mainly involved in the inhibition of excessive hypertrophy and hyperplasia of adipocytes.

Metadichol®: A Novel Nanolipid Formulation That Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 and a Multitude of Pathological Viruses In Vitro

Increasing outbreaks of new pathogenic viruses have promoted the exploration of novel alternatives to time-consuming vaccines. Thus, it is necessary to develop a universal approach to halt the spread of new and unknown viruses as they are discovered. One such promising approach is to target lipid membranes, which are common to all viruses and bacteria. The ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has reaffirmed the importance of interactions between the virus envelope and the host cell plasma membrane as a critical mechanism of infection. Metadichol®, a nanolipid emulsion of long-chain alcohols, has been demonstrated as a strong candidate that inhibits the proliferation of SARS-CoV-2. Naturally derived substances, such as long-chain saturated lipid alcohols, reduce viral infectivity, including that of coronaviruses (such as SARS-CoV-2) by modifying their lipid-dependent attachment mechanism to human host cells. The receptor ACE2 mediates the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the host cells, whereas the serine protease TMPRSS2 primes the viral S protein. In this study, Metadichol® was found to be 270 times more potent an inhibitor of TMPRSS2 (EC50 = 96 ng/mL) than camostat mesylate (EC50 = 26000 ng/mL). Additionally, it inhibits ACE with an EC50 of 71 ng/mL, but it is a very weak inhibitor of ACE2 at an EC50 of 31 μg/mL. Furthermore, the live viral assay performed in Caco-2 cells revealed that Metadichol® inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication at an EC90 of 0.16 μg/mL. Moreover, Metadichol® had an EC90 of 0.00037 μM, making it 2081 and 3371 times more potent than remdesivir (EC50 = 0.77 μM) and chloroquine (EC50 = 1.14 μM), respectively.

6-Gingerol and Semisynthetic 6-Gingerdione Counteract Oxidative Stress Induced by ROS in Zebrafish

6-Gingerol (1) is one of the major components in ginger and developing new synthetic methodologies could bring semisynthetic analogs with improved therapeutic properties. Towards this, multigram scale isolation of 6-gingerol with excellent purity was optimized using a simple and robust extraction, followed by column purification. Synthesis of 6-gingerdione, 7 from 6-gingerol was then achieved through selective -OTBDMS protection, DMP oxidation and deprotection reaction sequence for the first time. Compounds 1, 7 and 8 (dehydrozingerone) exhibited excellent cell-free antioxidant properties in DPPH, ABTS, superoxide radical scavenging assay and H2 O2 assay at 10-50 μM concentrations. The hemolytic study suggests that up to 50 μM, all three compounds did not exhibit toxicity to human erythrocytes. When H2 O2 treated zebrafish larvae groups (96hpf) were exposed to compounds 1, 7 and 8, it increases the SOD (19, 19.1 and 18.7 U/mg protein), CAT (18.1, 16.5, and 15.8 μmol/mg levels and decreases the lipid peroxidation level (13, 15 and 18 nmol/mg protein), respectively. In vivo ROS levels and degree of cell death were studied using DCFDA and Acridine orange assays. Compounds 1, 7 and 8 decreases the ROS and cell death level significantly. Taken together, compounds 1, 7 and 8 exhibit excellent antioxidant properties, counteract H2 O2 induced oxidative stress, reduces cell death in zebrafish larvae.

Exemplifying the next generation of antibiotic susceptibility intensifiers of phytochemicals by LasR-mediated quorum sensing inhibition

There persists a constant threat from multidrug resistance being acquired by all human pathogens that challenges the well-being of humans. This phenomenon is predominantly led by Pseudomonas aeruginosa which is already resistant to the current generations of antibiotic by altering its metabolic pathways to survive. Specifically for this microbe the phenomenon of quorum sensing (QS) plays a crucial role in acquiring virulence and pathogenicity. QS is simply the cross talk between the bacterial community driven by signals that bind to receptors, enabling the entire bacterial microcosm to function as a single unit which has led to control P. aeruginosa cumbersome even in presence of antibiotics. Inhibition of QS can, therefore, be of a significant importance to curb such virulent and pathogenic strains of P. aeruginosa. Natural compounds are well known for their antimicrobial properties, of which, information on their mode of action is scarce. There can be many antimicrobial phytochemicals that act by hindering QS-pathways. The rationale of the current study is to identify such natural compounds that can inhibit QS in P. aeruginosa driven by LasR, PhzR, and RhlR dependent pathways. To achieve this rationale, in silico studies were first performed to identify such natural compounds which were then validated by in vitro experiments. Gingerol and Curcumin were identified as QS-antagonists (QSA) which could further suppress the production of biofilm, EPS, pyocyanin, and rhamnolipid along with improving the susceptibility to antibiotics.

Promising effects of gingerol against toxins: A review article

Ginger is a medicinal and valuable culinary plant. Gingerols, as an active constituent in the fresh ginger rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, exhibit several promising pharmacological properties. This comprehensive literature review was performed to assess gingerol's protective and therapeutic efficacy against the various chemical, natural, and radiational stimuli. Another objective of this study was to investigate the mechanism of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiapoptotic properties of gingerol. It should be noted that the data were gathered from in vivo and in vitro experimental studies. Gingerols can exert their protective activity through different mechanisms and cell signaling pathways. For example, these are mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB), Wnt/β-catenin, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/antioxidant response element (Nrf2/ARE), transforming growth factor beta1/Smad3 (TGF-β1/Smad3), and extracellular signal-related kinase/cAMP-response element-binding protein (ERK/CREB). We hope that more researchers can benefit from this review to conduct preclinical and clinical studies, treat cancer, inflammation, and attenuate the side effects of drugs and industrial pollutants.

Ginger: A complementary approach for management of cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Inflammation and oxidative stress play critical roles in progression of various types of CVD. Broad pharmacological properties of ginger (the rhizome of Zingiber officinale) and its bioactive components have been reported, suggesting that they can be a therapeutic choice for clinical use. Consistent with its rich phenolic content, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of ginger have been confirmed in many studies. Ginger modifies many cellular processes and in particular was shown to have potent inhibitory effects against nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB); signal transducer and activator of transcription; NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing proteins; toll-like receptors; mitogen-activated protein kinase; and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathways. Ginger also blocks pro-inflammatory cytokines and the activation of the immune system. Ginger suppresses the activity of oxidative molecules such as reactive oxygen species, inducible nitric oxide synthase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione, heme oxygenase, and GSH-Px. In this report, we summarize the biochemical pathologies underpinning a variety of CVDs and the effects of ginger and its bioactive components, including 6-shogaol, 6-gingerol, and 10-dehydrogingerdione. The properties of ginger and its phenolic components, mechanism of action, biological functions, side effects, and methods for enhanced cell delivery are also discussed. Together with preclinical and clinical studies, the positive biological effects of ginger and its bioactive components in CVD support the undertaking of further in vivo and especially clinical studies.

6-Gingerol protects against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome and apoptosis via TRPV1 / FAF1 complex dissociation-mediated autophagy

BACKGROUND

Our previous studies demonstrated that autophagy alleviates cerebral I/R injury by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammation. 6-Gingerol, a phenolic compound extracted from ginger, was reported to possess potent antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory activities and is associated with autophagy. However, the effects of 6-Gingerol in cerebral I/R injury have not been elucidated, and whether they involve autophagy-induced NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition remains unclear.

METHODS

Adult male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 1 h, followed by reperfusion for 24 h. 6-Gingerol and 3-methyladenine (3-MA) were injected intraperitoneally, and si-TRPV1 was injected via the lateral ventricle. Cerebral infarct volume, brain edema, neurological deficits, HE and Nissl were used to evaluate the morphological and functional changes of brain tissue, respectively. TRPV1, FAF1, autophagy related (LC3II/I, P62, Beclin1), inflammation related (NLRP3, cleaved-caspase-1, caspase-1, cleaved-IL-1β, IL-1β, cleaved-IL-18, IL-18) and apoptosis related (Bcl-2, Bax, cleaved-caspase-3) proteins were assessed by Western blot, immunofluorescence staining and coimmunoprecipitation, respectively. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to evaluate the changes in the expression levels of interleukin-1 (IL-1β) and interleukin-18(IL-18), respectively. The degree of neuronal apoptosis was evaluated by TUNEL staining. Neuronal ultrastructure was examined by transmission electron microscopy.

RESULT

6-Gingerol treatment significantly reduced cerebral infarct volume, improved brain edema and neurological scores, and reversed brain histomorphological damage after I/R injury. In addition, 6-Gingerol significantly reduced NLRP3 inflammasome-derived inflammation and neuronal apoptosis and upregulated autophagy. The autophagy inhibitor 3-MA rescued the effects of 6-Gingerol on the NLRP3 inflammasome and apoptosis. Moreover, the findings illustrated that 6-Gingerol inhibited autophagy-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and apoptosis through the dissociation of TRPV1 from FAF1.

CONCLUSION

In brief, 6-Gingerol exerts antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects via TRPV1/FAF1 complex dissociation-mediated autophagy during cerebral I/R injury. Therefore, 6-Gingerol may be an effective drug for the treatment of I/R injury.

Nanomaze Lure: Pheromone Sandwich in Graphene Oxide Interlayers for Sustainable Targeted Pest Control

The indiscriminate use of pesticides leads to irreparable damage to the ecosystem, which motivates for sustainable alternatives like pheromone-assisted pest management. The tomato pinworm Tuta absoluta is a major threat to tomato cultivation. Moreover, its green management technology uses a pheromone trap that has a short field life. To overcome this problem, a pheromone composite with graphene oxide (GO) and amine-modified graphene oxide (AGO) that can extend the diffusion path has been developed. The composite stimulates an effective electrophysiological response in the antenna, which results in trapping of a significantly higher number of insects as compared to the commercial septa, thus qualifying it for field evaluation. Compared to AGO, the GO composite has pheromones assembled into a multilayer, which increases the pheromone diffusion path. This in turn resulted in the extension of the pheromone life that proportionally increased the pest trapped. This technique will be beneficial to farmers as they have longer field efficacy to keep the pest damage low in an environmentally friendly manner.

Influence of Sargassum pallidum and the synergistic interaction mechanism of 6-gingerol and poricoic acid A on inhibiting ovalbumin glycation

This study aimed to investigate the antiglycation capacity of Sargassum pallidum extract on ovalbumin (OVA) glycation, and the interaction mechanism of its active compounds, including 6-gingerol (6G) and poricoic acid A (PA). The results showed that Sargassum pallidum extract, PA and 6G had excellent suppression on the formation of fructosamine, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), acrylamide and advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which was higher than aminoguanidine (AG). The combination of PA and 6G showed good synergistic effect on inhibiting the formation of AGEs. PA exhibited the strongest inhibition activity for protein glycation products, and the content of 5-HMF and acrylamide decreased from 277.44 and 10.60 μg mL-1 to 208.37 and 5.46 μg mL-1, respectively, at 30.08 × 10-5 M compared with the control group. 6G and PA quenched the fluorescence of OVA with a static mechanism, and enhanced the hydrophilic microenvironment of the tyrosine (Tyr) and tryptophan (Trp) residues. The binding of 6G and PA with OVA was spontaneous and driven by hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. Molecular docking indicated that 6G and PA entered the hydrophobic cavity of OVA, and formed hydrogen bonds with Ser103, Leu101 and Thr 91. These findings suggested that Sargassum pallidum extract, PA and 6G have great potential as antiglycation inhibitors to treat diabetes complications in healthy food.

Ginger, a Possible Candidate for the Treatment of Dementias?

As the human life expectancy increases, age-linked diseases have become more and more frequent. The worldwide increment of dementia cases demands medical solutions, but the current available drugs do not meet all the expectations. Recently the attention of the scientific community was attracted by natural compounds, used in ancient medicine, known for their beneficial effects and high tolerability. This review is focused on Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and explore its properties against Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia, two of the most common and devastating forms of dementia. This work resumes the beneficial effects of Ginger compounds, tested in computational in vitro and in vivo models of Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia, along with some human tests. All these evidences suggest a potential role of the compounds of ginger not only in the treatment of the disease, but also in its prevention.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Falcarinol-Type Analogues as Potential Calcium Channel Blockers

A series of enantiomers of falcarinol analogues (2) were synthesized using a chiral 1,1'-binaphth-2-ol (BINOL)-based catalytic system. The neuroprotective effects of falcarinol (1a) and its analogues (2) on PC12 cells injured by sodium azide (NaN₃) were investigated. The structure-function relationships and possible mechanism were studied. Pretreatment of PC12 cells with falcarinol analogues (R)-2d and (R)-2i for 1 h following addition of NaN₃ and culture in a CO₂ incubator for 24 h resulted in significant elevation of cell viability, as determined by a CCK-8 assay and Hoechst staining, with reduction of LDH release and MDA content, increase of SOD activity, and decrease of ROS stress, when compared with the activity of natural falcarinol (1a). These observations indicated that the falcarinol analogues (R)-2d and (R)-2i can protect PC12 cells against NaN₃-induced apoptosis via increasing resistance to oxidative stress. For the first time, falcarinol (1a) and its analogue (R)-2i were found to have potential L-type calcium channel-blocking activity, as recorded using a manual patch clamp technique on HEK-293 cells stably expressing hCav1.2 (α1C/β2a/α2δ1). These findings suggest that the mechanism of the L-type calcium channel-blocking activity of falcarinol (1a) and its analogue (R)-2i might be involved in neuroprotection by falcarinol-type analogues by inhibiting calcium overload in the upstream of the signaling pathway.

Bioactivity Screening of Antarctic Sponges Reveals Anticancer Activity and Potential Cell Death via Ferroptosis by Mycalols

Sponges are known to produce a series of compounds with bioactivities useful for human health. This study was conducted on four sponges collected in the framework of the XXXIV Italian National Antarctic Research Program (PNRA) in November-December 2018, i.e., Mycale (Oxymycale) acerata, Haliclona (Rhizoniera) dancoi, Hemimycale topsenti, and Hemigellius pilosus. Sponge extracts were fractioned and tested against hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2), lung carcinoma (A549), and melanoma cells (A2058), in order to screen for antiproliferative or cytotoxic activity. Two different chemical classes of compounds, belonging to mycalols and suberitenones, were identified in the active fractions. Mycalols were the most active compounds, and their mechanism of action was also investigated at the gene and protein levels in HepG2 cells. Of the differentially expressed genes, ULK1 and GALNT5 were the most down-regulated genes, while MAPK8 was one of the most up-regulated genes. These genes were previously associated with ferroptosis, a programmed cell death triggered by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, confirmed at the protein level by the down-regulation of GPX4, a key regulator of ferroptosis, and the up-regulation of NCOA4, involved in iron homeostasis. These data suggest, for the first time, that mycalols act by triggering ferroptosis in HepG2 cells.

Biochemical and Molecular Effects Induced by Triacontanol in Acquired Tolerance of Rice to Drought Stress

To assess the effect of triacontanol (TRIA) on rice plants grown under normal or drought conditions, rice seeds were presoaked in TRIA (35 ppm) for two hours. After 20 days of sowing, rice seedlings developed from TRIA-treated or untreated seeds were subjected to drought stress. After 10 days of plant exposure to drought stress, data of major growth attributes and the content of photosynthetic pigments were recorded. Moreover, the effect of drought stress on stomatal conductance and the photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) were followed. The data obtained indicated that the species of rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivar Giza 177 under investigation was sensitive to drought stress where there were significant decreases in the fresh and dry weights of shoots and roots and in stomatal conductance, as well as in the content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids. Seed priming with TRIA enhanced both growth and acquired plant tolerance to drought stress. Thus, TRIA via the enhancement of stomatal conductance through the regulation of stomatal closure, the rate of water loss, ABA metabolism, the accumulation of osmolytes, and the regulation of aquaporins genes improved the water status of plants grown under water scarcity. Moreover, TRIA via increasing the content of free amino acids and sugars under drought stress may increase the chance of plant tissues to retain more water under scarcity conditions.

Development of edible Thai rice film fortified with ginger extract using microwave-assisted extraction for oral antimicrobial properties

This study aimed to investigate microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of dried ginger and to develop a rice-based edible film incorporating ginger extract. The optimal MAE conditions of 400 W microwave power and an extraction time of 1 min were determined using a 32 full factorial design. The optimized extract showed total phenolic compounds (TPC, 198.2 ± 0.7 mg gallic acid equivalent/g), antioxidant activity measured by DPPH (91.4 ± 0.6% inhibition), ABTS (106.4 ± 3.1 mg Trolox/g), and FRAP (304.6 ± 5.5 mg Trolox/g), and bioactive compounds including 6-gingerol (71.5 ± 3.6 mg/g), 6-shogaol (12.5 ± 1.0 mg/g), paradol (23.1 ± 1.1 mg/g), and zingerone (5.0 ± 0.3 mg/g). Crude extract of dried ginger showed antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans DMST 18777, with a minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of 0.5 and 31.2 mg/mL, respectively. The rice-based edible film incorporating 3.2% (w/v) ginger extract tested against S. mutans DMST 18777 had a mean zone of inhibition of 12.7 ± 0.1 mm. Four main phenolic compounds, 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, paradol, and zingerone, and six volatile compounds, α-curcumene, α-zingiberene, γ-muurolene, α-farnesene, β-bisabolene, and β-sesquiphellandrene, were found in rice film fortified with crude ginger extract.

6-Gingerol, a Major Constituent of Zingiber officinale Rhizoma, Exerts Anticonvulsant Activity in the Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Seizure Model in Larval Zebrafish

Zingiber officinale is one of the most frequently used medicinal herbs in Asia. Using rodent seizure models, it was previously shown that Zingiber officinale hydroethanolic extract exerts antiseizure activity, but the active constituents responsible for this effect have not been determined. In this paper, we demonstrated that Zingiber officinale methanolic extract exerts anticonvulsant activity in the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced hyperlocomotion assay in larval zebrafish. Next, we isolated 6-gingerol (6-GIN)-a major constituent of Zingiber officinale rhizoma. We observed that 6-GIN exerted potent dose-dependent anticonvulsant activity in the PTZ-induced hyperlocomotion seizure assay in zebrafish, which was confirmed electroencephalographically. To obtain further insight into the molecular mechanisms of 6-GIN antiseizure activity, we assessed the concentration of two neurotransmitters in zebrafish, i.e., inhibitory γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and excitatory glutamic acid (GLU), and their ratio after exposure to acute PTZ dose. Here, 6-GIN decreased GLU level and reduced the GLU/GABA ratio in PTZ-treated fish compared with only PTZ-bathed fish. This activity was associated with the decrease in grin2b, but not gabra1a, grin1a, gria1a, gria2a, and gria3b expression in PTZ-treated fish. Molecular docking to the human NR2B-containing N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor suggests that 6-GIN might act as an inhibitor and interact with the amino terminal domain, the glutamate-binding site, as well as within the ion channel of the NR2B-containing NMDA receptor. In summary, our study reveals, for the first time, the anticonvulsant activity of 6-GIN. We suggest that this effect might at least be partially mediated by restoring the balance between GABA and GLU in the epileptic brain; however, more studies are needed to prove our hypothesis.

6-Gingerol relieves myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion injury by regulating lncRNA H19/miR-143/ATG7 signaling axis-mediated autophagy

Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MIRI) causes severe damage in cardiac tissue, thereby resulting in a high rate of mortality. 6-Gingerol (6-G) is reported to play an essential role in alleviating MIRI. However, the underlying mechanism remains obscure. This study was intended to explore the potential mechanism by which 6-G functions. Q-PCR was employed to quantify the relative RNA levels of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) H19 (H19), miR-143, and ATG7, an enzyme essential for autophagy, in HL-1 cells. Western blotting, immunofluorescence, and immunohistochemistry were employed for protein evaluation in cultured cells or mouse tissues. Cell viability, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis were analysed by CCK-8, LDH, and flow cytometry assays, respectively. The binding sites for miR-143 were predicted using starBase software and experimentally validated through a dual-luciferase reporter system. Here, we found that 6-G elevated cellular H19 expression in hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-treated HL-1 cells. Moreover, 6-G increased Bcl-2 expression but reduced cleaved caspase 3 and caspase 9 protein levels. Mechanistically, H19 directly interacted with miR-143 and lowered its cellular abundance by acting as a molecular sponge. Importantly, ATG7 was validated as a regulated gene of miR-143, and the depletion of miR-143 by H19 caused an increased in ATG7 expression, which in turn promoted the autophagy process. Last, mouse experiments highly supported our in vitro findings that 6-G relieves MIRI by enhancing autophagy. The H19/miR-143/ATG7 axis was shown to be critical for the function of 6-G in relieving MIRI.

5-LO-derived LTB4 plays a key role in MCP-1 expression in HMGB1-exposed VSMCs via a BLTR1 signaling axis

Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) plays an important role in initiating vascular inflammation; however, its cellular source in the injured vasculatures is unclear. Given the importance of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in tissue injury, we investigated the role of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in MCP-1 production in response to HMGB1. In primary cultured rat aortic VSMCs stimulated with HMGB1, the expression of MCP-1 and 5-lipoxygenase (LO) was increased. The increased MCP-1 expression in HMGB1 (30 ng/ml)-stimulated cells was significantly attenuated in 5-LO-deficient cells as well as in cells treated with zileuton, a 5-LO inhibitor. Likewise, MCP-1 expression and production were also increased in cells stimulated with exogenous leukotriene B4 (LTB4), but not exogenous LTC4. LTB4-induced MCP-1 expression was attenuated in cells treated with U75302, a LTB4 receptor 1 (BLTR1) inhibitor as well as in BLTR1-deficient cells, but not in 5-LO-deficient cells. Moreover, HMGB1-induced MCP-1 expression was attenuated in BLTR1-deficient cells or by treatment with a BLTR1 inhibitor, but not other leukotriene receptor inhibitors. In contrast to MCP-1 expression in response to LTB4, the increased MCP-1 production in HMGB1-stimulated VSMC was markedly attenuated in 5-LO-deficient cells, indicating a pivotal role of LTB4-BLTR1 signaling in MCP-1 expression in VSMCs. Taken together, 5-LO-derived LTB4 plays a key role in MCP-1 expression in HMGB1-exposed VSMCs via BLTR1 signaling, suggesting the LTB4-BLTR1 signaling axis as a potential therapeutic target for vascular inflammation in the injured vasculatures.

Potential Antitumor Effects of 6-Gingerol in p53-Dependent Mitochondrial Apoptosis and Inhibition of Tumor Sphere Formation in Breast Cancer Cells

Hormone-specific anticancer drugs for breast cancer treatment can cause serious side effects. Thus, treatment with natural compounds has been considered a better approach as this minimizes side effects and has multiple targets. 6-Gingerol is an active polyphenol in ginger with various modalities, including anticancer activity, although its mechanism of action remains unknown. Increases in the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can lead to DNA damage and the induction of DNA damage response (DDR) mechanism, leading to cell cycle arrest apoptosis and tumorsphere suppression. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) promotes tumor growth by stimulating signaling of downstream targets that in turn activates tumor protein 53 (p53) to promote apoptosis. Here we assessed the effect of 6-gingerol treatment on MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines. 6-Gingerol induced cellular and mitochondrial ROS that elevated DDR through ataxia-telangiectasia mutated and p53 activation. 6-Gingerol also induced G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and mitochondrial apoptosis by mediating the BAX/BCL-2 ratio and release of cytochrome c. It also exhibited a suppression ability of tumorsphere formation in breast cancer cells. EGFR/Src/STAT3 signaling was also determined to be responsible for p53 activation and that 6-gingerol induced p53-dependent intrinsic apoptosis in breast cancer cells. Therefore, 6-gingerol may be used as a candidate drug against hormone-dependent breast cancer cells.

Insight into Inhibitory Mechanism of PDE4D by Dietary Polyphenols Using Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Free Energy Calculations

Phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4), mainly present in immune, epithelial, and brain cells, represents a family of key enzymes for the degradation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which modulates inflammatory response. In recent years, the inhibition of PDE4 has been proven to be an effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of neurological disorders. PDE4D constitutes a high-interest therapeutic target primarily for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, as it is highly involved in neuroinflammation, learning ability, and memory dysfunctions. In the present study, a thorough computational investigation consisting of molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and binding free energy calculations based on the linear response approximation (LRA) method was performed to study dietary polyphenols as potential PDE4D inhibitors. The obtained results revealed that curcumin, 6-gingerol, capsaicin, and resveratrol represent potential PDE4D inhibitors; however, the predicted binding free energies of 6-gingerol, capsaicin, and resveratrol were less negative than in the case of curcumin, which exhibited the highest inhibitory potency in comparison with a positive control rolipram. Our results also revealed that the electrostatic component through hydrogen bonding represents the main driving force for the binding and inhibitory activity of curcumin, 6-gingerol, and resveratrol, while the van der Waals component through shape complementarity plays the most important role in capsaicin’s inhibitory activity. All investigated compounds form hydrophobic interactions with residues Gln376 and Asn602 as well as hydrogen bonds with nearby residues Asp438, Met439, and Ser440. The binding mode of the studied natural compounds is consequently very similar; however, it significantly differs from the binding of known PDE4 inhibitors. The uncovered molecular inhibitory mechanisms of four investigated natural polyphenols, curcumin, 6-gingerol, capsaicin, and resveratrol, form the basis for the design of novel PDE4D inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease with a potentially wider therapeutic window and fewer adverse side effects.

Molecular and biological functions of gingerol as a natural effective therapeutic drug for cervical cancer

Cervical cancer is one of the most common and important gynecological cancers, which has a global concern with an increasing number of patients and mortality rates. Today, most women in the world who suffer from cervical cancer are developing advanced stages of the disease. Smoking and even exposure to secondhand smoke, infections caused by the human papillomavirus, immune system dysfunction and high-risk individual-social behaviors are among the most important predisposing factors for this type of cancer. In addition, papilloma virus infection plays a more prominent role in cervical cancer. Surgery, chemotherapy or radical hysterectomy, and radiotherapy are effective treatments for this condition, the side effects of these methods endanger a person's quality of life and cause other problems in other parts of the body. Studies show that herbal medicines, including taxol, camptothecin and combretastatins, have been shown to be effective in treating cervical cancer. Ginger (Zingiber officinale, Zingiberaceae) is one of the plants with valuable compounds such as gingerols, paradols and shogoals, which is a rich source of antioxidants, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory agents. Numerous studies have reported the therapeutic effects of this plant through various pathways in cervical cancer. In this article, we look at the signaling mechanisms and pathways in which ginger is used to treat cervical cancer.

6-Gingerol attenuates ventilator-induced lung injury via anti-inflammation and antioxidative stress by modulating the PPARγ/NF-κBsignalling pathway in rats

Although mechanical ventilation (MV) is indispensable to life-support therapy in critically ill patients, it may promote or aggravatelunginjury known asventilator-inducedlunginjury(VILI). 6-Gingerol is the principal ingredient of ginger with potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in various diseases. Nevertheless, the role and mechanism of 6-gingerol in the process of VILI has not been explicitly investigated. In the study, we found that pre-treatment with 6-gingerol significantly improved the histological changes and pulmonary oedema, inhibited neutrophil accumulation and the release of early pro-inflammatory cytokines and MPO, and reduced oxidative stress reactions after high MV. Moreover, 6-gingerol treatment also increased PPARγ expression and decreased NF-κB activation in rats subjected to high MV. Furthermore, GW9662, a specific PPARγ inhibitor, was demonstrated to activatethe NF-κB pathway and cancele the protective role of 6-gingerol in VILI. This indicates that 6-gingerol exerted anti-inflammatory and antioxidative stress effects in VILI by activating PPARγ and inhibiting the NF-κBsignalling pathway.

6-Gingerol, a Major Ingredient of Ginger Attenuates Diethylnitrosamine-Induced Liver Injury in Rats through the Modulation of Oxidative Stress and Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Diethylnitrosamine (DEN) is a well-known hepatocarcinogen, and its oral administration causes severe liver damage including cancer. DEN induces the pathogenesis of the liver through reactive oxygen species mediated inflammation and modulation of various biological activities. 6-Gingerol, a major component of ginger, is reported to prevent liver diseases by reducing the oxidative stress and proinflammatory mediators. The present study investigated the hepatoprotective effects of 6-gingerol through the measurement of oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory markers, liver function enzyme parameter, and histopathological analysis. The rats were randomly divided into four groups as the control, DEN treated (50 mg/kg b.w.), DEN+6-gingerol (each 50 mg/kg b.w.), and 6-gingerol only. To evaluate the hepatoprotective effects, liver function enzymes (ALT, AST, and ALP), oxidative stress markers (SOD, GSH, GST, and TAC), lipid peroxidation, inflammatory markers (CRP, TNF-α, IL-6, and ICAM1), haematoxylin and eosin staining, Sirius red staining, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy were performed. The results showed a significant increase in liver function enzymes, oxidative stress, and inflammatory markers in the DEN-treated group as compared to the control group. Besides this, altered architecture of hepatocytes (infiltration of inflammatory cells, congestion, blood vessel dilation, and edema), abundant collagen fiber and organelle structures like distorted shaped and swollen mitochondria, and broken endoplasmic reticulum were noticed. The administration of 6-gingerol significantly ameliorated the biochemical and histopathological changes. The increased expression of TNF-α protein was noticed in the DEN-treated group whereas the administration of 6-gingerol significantly decreased the expression of this protein. Based on these findings, it can be suggested that 6-gingerol may be an alternative therapy for the prevention and treatment of liver diseases.

Panaxytriol Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Microglia Activation in Brain Inflammation in Vivo

Brain inflammation is a pathological characteristic of neurodegenerative diseases. In this condition, excessively activated microglia elevate proinflammatory mediator levels. We previously reported that panaxytriol inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglia activation in vitro. However, the effects of panaxytriol on microglia activation in vivo require confirmation. In the present study, we found that panaxytriol suppressed both microglia and astrocyte activation by injected LPS intracerebrally to mice with LPS-induced brain inflammation. Panaxytriol was more effective on microglia than astrocytes. Moreover, panaxytriol tended to reduce LPS-induced spontaneous motor activity dysfunction. These results suggested that panaxytriol could improve brain health by suppressing microglia activation in neurodegenerative diseases.

6-Gingerol suppresses tumor cell metastasis by increasing YAPser127 phosphorylation in renal cell carcinoma

According to the World Health Organization, the incidence and mortality rates of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) are rapidly increasing worldwide. Serious side effects caused by immune therapy and resistance to targeted drug therapy are urgent clinical problems facing kidney treatment. There is increasing global interest in developing natural products with a reduced number of side effects as adjunctive therapeutic options for RCC. Ginger is a spice and herbal remedy used worldwide, and 6-gingerol is a major pharmacologically active ingredient in ginger. In our study, we found that 6-gingerol suppressed RCC cell migration and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, reduction in MMP2, Slug, and Vimentin protein levels was observed following 6-gingerol treatment of 786-O and ACHN cells. Furthermore, we revealed the mechanisms underlying the ability of 6-gingerol to inhibit RCC cell migration and metastasis. 6-Gingerol increased yes-associated protein (YAP)ser127 phosphorylation and reduced YAP levels in cell nuclei. We also used a series of loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments to support our results. Western blot results showed that MMP2, Slug, and Vimentin protein expression was downregulated in YAP-silenced cells and upregulated in YAP-overexpressing cells. Transwell data demonstrated that YAP suppressed RCC migration ability. Immunofluorescence images showed that 6-gingerol decreased YAP levels, leading to disordered F-actin and a reduction in cell lamellipodia. Overall, our results indicated that 6-gingerol is a potential antimetastatic compound for use in kidney therapy.

Integrated Metagenomics and Metabolomics to Reveal the Effects of Policosanol on Modulating the Gut Microbiota and Lipid Metabolism in Hyperlipidemic C57BL/6 Mice

The aim of the study was to investigate the regulatory effects of policosanol on hyperlipidemia, gut microbiota and metabolic status in a C57BL/6 mouse model. A total of 35 C57BL/6 mice were assigned to 3 groups, chow (n=12), high fat diet (HFD, n=12) and HFD+policosanol (n=11), then treated for 18 weeks. Policosanol supplementation significantly reduced serum triglycerides and total cholesterol, as well as the weight of brown adipose tissue (BAT) (p<0.05), without affecting body weight in HFD-fed mice (p>0.05). Combined 16S rRNA gene sequencing and untargeted metabolomic analysis demonstrated that policosanol had regulatory effects on gut microbiota and serum metabolism in mice. In obese mice, policosanol increased the proportion of Bacteroides, decreased the proportion of Firmicutes, and increased the ratio of Bacteroides to Firmicutes (p<0.05). Policosanol promoted lipolysis and thermogenesis process, including tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and pyruvate cycle, correlated with the increasing level of Bacteroides, Parasutterella, and decreasing level of Lactobacillus and Candidatus_Saccharimonas. Moreover, policosanol decreased fatty acid synthase (FAS) in the iWAT of obese mice. Policosanol also increased peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ), uncoupling Protein-1 (UCP-1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) and PR domain containing 16 (PRDM16) in brown adipose tissue (BAT) obese mice (p<0.05). This study presents the new insight that policosanol may inhibit the synthesis of fatty acids, and promote lipolysis, thermogenesis related gene expression and regulate gut microbiota constituents, which provides potential for policosanol as an antihyperlipidemia functional food additive and provide new evidence for whole grain food to replace refined food.

A look around the West Indies: The spices of life are secondary metabolites

Natural products possess a wide range of bioactivities with potential for therapeutic usage. While the distribution of these molecules can vary greatly there is some correlation that exists between the biodiversity of an environment and the uniqueness and concentration of natural products found in that region or area. The Caribbean and pan-Caribbean area is home to thousands of species of endemic fauna and flora providing huge potential for natural product discovery and by way, potential leads for drug development. This can especially be said for marine natural products as many of are rapidly diluted through diffusion once released and therefore are highly potent to achieve long reaching effects. This review seeks to highlight a small selection of marine natural products from the Caribbean region which possess antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory and antipathogenic properties while highlighting any synthetic efforts towards bioactive analogs.

Assessing the Effects of Ginger Extract on Polyphenol Profiles and the Subsequent Impact on the Fecal Microbiota by Simulating Digestion and Fermentation In Vitro

The beneficial effects of ginger polyphenols have been extensively reported. However, their metabolic characteristics and health effects on gut microbiota are poor understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the digestion stability of ginger polyphenols and their prebiotic effects on gut microbiota by simulating digestion and fermentation in vitro. Following simulated digestion in vitro, 85% of the polyphenols were still detectable, and the main polyphenol constituents identified in ginger extract are 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerols and 6-shogaol in the digestive fluids. After batch fermentation, the changes in microbial populations were measured by 16S rRNA gene Illumina MiSeq sequencing. In mixed-culture fermentation with fecal inoculate, digested ginger extract (GE) significantly modulated the fecal microbiota structure and promoted the growth of some beneficial bacterial populations, such as Bifidobacterium and Enterococcus. Furthermore, incubation with GE could elevate the levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) accompanied by a decrease in the pH value. Additionally, the quantitative PCR results showed that 6-gingerol (6G), as the main polyphenol in GE, increased the abundance of Bifidobacterium significantly. Therefore, 6G is expected to be a potential prebiotic that improves human health by promoting gut health.

Phytantriol-Based Cubosome Formulation as an Antimicrobial against Lipopolysaccharide-Deficient Gram-Negative Bacteria

Treatment of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections increasingly relies on last-line antibiotics, such as polymyxins, with the urgent need for discovery of new antimicrobials. Nanotechnology-based antimicrobials have gained significant importance to prevent the catastrophic emergence of MDR over the past decade. In this study, phytantriol-based nanoparticles, named cubosomes, were prepared and examined in vitro by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and time-kill assays against Gram-negative bacteria: Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Phytantriol-based cubosomes were highly bactericidal against polymyxin-resistant, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-deficient A. baumannii strains. Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) was employed to understand the structural changes in biomimetic membranes that replicate the composition of these LPS-deficient strains upon treatment with cubosomes. Additionally, to further understand the membrane-cubosome interface, neutron reflectivity (NR) was used to investigate the interaction of cubosomes with model bacterial membranes on a solid support. These results reveal that cubosomes might be a new strategy for combating LPS-deficient Gram-negative pathogens.

[6]-Gingerol Ameliorates Cisplatin-Induced Pica by Regulating the TPH/MAO-A/SERT/5-HT/5-HT3 Receptor System in Rats

PURPOSE

[6]-gingerol is a bioactive compound extracted from ginger, a traditional anti-emetic herb in Chinese medicine. Previous studies have demonstrated that [6]-gingerol can ameliorate chemotherapy-induced pica in rats, although the underlying mechanism has not been elucidated. This study is designed to investigate [6]-gingerol's antiemetic mechanism focusing on the 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT) system by evaluating the synthesis, metabolism and reuptake of 5-HT, as well as the mechanism of 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 receptor (5-HT3 receptor), in a cisplatin-induced pica model of rats.

METHODS

Rats were randomly divided into control group (vehicle + saline, Con), [6]-gingerol control group (50 mg/kg [6]-gingerol + saline, G-con), ondansetron control group (2.6 mg/kg ondansetron + saline, O-con), cisplatin model group (vehicle + cisplatin, Model), ondansetron-treated group (2.6 mg/kg ondansetron + cisplatin, O-treated), high dosage of [6]-gingerol-treated group (100 mg/kg [6]-gingerol + cisplatin, GH-treated), and low dosage of [6]-gingerol-treated group (50 mg/kg [6]-gingerol + cisplatin, GL-treated). The rats were administered with [6]-gingerol, ondansetron, and vehicle (3% Tween-80) by gavage twice (7:00 AM and 7:00 PM). One hour after the first treatment (8:00 AM), rats in groups Model, O-treated, GH-treated and GL-treated were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with 6 mg/kg cisplatin, and the other groups were injected i.p. with saline of equal volume. The consumption of kaolin of the rats were measured. All the rats were anesthetized by i.p. injection of pentobarbital sodium at 24 h post-cisplatin. After blood samples were taken, medulla oblongata and ileum were removed. The levels of 5-HT and its metabolite 5-HIAA in ileum, medulla oblongata and serum were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD). The mRNA expression levels of 5-HT3 receptor, tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and serotonin reuptake transporter (SERT) were detected by real-time PCR. The protein expression levels and distribution of 5-HT3 receptor, TPH and MAO-A in the medulla oblongata and ileum were measured by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry, respectively.

RESULTS

[6]-gingerol treatment significantly reduced the kaolin ingestion and the increase in 5-HT concentration in rats induced by cisplatin. TPH, MAO-A, SERT, and 5-HT3 receptor are important in 5-HT metabolism, and cisplatin-induced alterations in the associated protein/mRNA levels were restored when treated with [6]-gingerol.

CONCLUSION

This suggests that the antiemetic effect of [6]-gingerol against cisplatin-induced emesis may be due to 5-HT attenuation via modulating the TPH/MAO-A/SERT/5-HT/5-HT3 receptor system.

Precision Research on Ginger: The Type of Ginger Matters

Ginger is a widely consumed spice and possesses numerous pharmacological properties. However, studies addressing the efficacy of ginger in humans have been inconsistent. Many confounding factors need to be considered when evaluating the health effects from ginger against chronic diseases, especially the levels of bioactive components in the ginger formulations used in human trials. Gingerols, the major compounds in fresh ginger, are liable to dehydrate and convert to shogaols, the major compounds in dried ginger, as a result of the instability of β-hydroxyl ketone when exposed to heat and/or acidic conditions. As a result of various heating and processing methods, the concentrations of gingerols and shogaols in ginger products vary significantly. Increasing evidence has shown that gingerols and shogaols have different bioactivities, molecular targets, and metabolic pathways, suggesting the importance of identifying the optimal oral ginger composition for a specific disease. In this perspective, we highlighted differences in the composition between fresh ginger and dry ginger, bioactivities, molecular targets, and metabolic pathways of gingerols and shogaols as well as future perspectives regarding precision research on ginger.

6-Gingerol attenuates microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and ischemic brain injuries through Akt-mTOR-STAT3 signaling pathway

Neuroinflammation is critical for the pathogenesis of ischemia brain damage. Over-activated microglia-mediated inflammation plays a very important role in ischemia cerebral injuries. 6-Gingerol, obtained from edible ginger (Zingiber Officinale) exhibits protective effects against inflammation. In this study, we found that 6-Gingerol could reduce the size of infarction (P = 0.0184) and improve neurological functions (P = 0.04) at the third day after ischemic brain injury in vivo. Since 6-Gingerol has the anti-inflammatory effects, we further investigated its impacts on neuroinflammation mediated by microglia both in vivo and in vitro. We found that the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β, P = 0.0213), Interleukin-6 (IL-6, P = 0.0316), and inducible NO synthase (iNOS, P = 0.0229) in the infarct penumbra were lower in 6-Gingerol treated groups. Furthermore, microglia induced pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-1β, incremental intercellular nitric oxide (NO), as well as iNOS were blocked by the treatment of 6-Gingerol in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated microglia. In terms of mechanism, 6-Gingerol potently suppressed phosphorylation of serine-threonine protein kinase (Akt) - mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) - signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in LPS-treated microglia. Taken together, the present study suggested that 6-Gingerol improved cerebral ischemia injury by suppressing microglia-mediated neuroinflammation by down-regulating Akt-mTOR-STAT3 pathway.

10-Gingerol Targets Lipid Rafts Associated PI3K/Akt Signaling in Radio-Resistant Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells

10-gingerol is a major phenolic lipid found in the rhizomes of ginger (Zingiber officinale). Being amphiphilic in nature, phenolic lipids have the ability to incorporate into cell membranes and modulate membrane properties. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of 10-gingerol on lipid raft/membrane raft modulation in radio-resistant triple negative breast cancer (MDA-MB-231/IR) cells. The effects of 10-gingerol on MDA-MB-231/IR cells' proliferation, clonogenic growth, migration, and invasion were assayed using MTT, colony formation, cell migration, and invasion assays, respectively. Sucrose density gradient centrifugation was used to extract lipid rafts. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were employed to assess the effects of 10-gingerol on lipid raft/membrane raft modulation and lipid rafts-associated PI3K/Akt signaling. Cholesterol measurements were carried out using a commercially available kit. 10-gingerol suppressed the proliferation, migration, invasion, and induced apoptosis through targeting the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in MDA-MB-231/IR cells. Moreover, 10-gingerol was found to modulate the lipid rafts of MDA-MB-231/IR cells and attenuate the key PI3K/Akt signaling components in lipid rafts. The cholesterol content of the lipid rafts and rafts-resident Akt signaling were also affected by exposure to 10-gingerol. The results of the present study highlight rafts-associated PI3K/Akt signaling as a new target of 10-gingerol in MDA-MB-231/IR cells, thus rationalizing a new rafts-mediated treatment approach for radio-resistant triple negative breast cancer cells.