Pegvisomant and cabergoline combination therapy in acromegaly

Medical treatment of functional pituitary adenomas, trials and tribulations

CONTEXT

Functioning pituitary adenomas (FPAs) include most frequently prolactinomas, somatotroph or corticotroph adenomas, while thyrotroph and gonadotroph adenomas are very rare. Despite their benign histological nature (aggressive tumors are rare and malignant ones exceptional), FPAs could cause significant morbidity and increased mortality due to complications associated with hormonal excess syndromes and/or mass effect leading to compression of adjacent structures. This mini review will focus on the increasing role of medical therapy in the multimodal treatment, which also includes transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) and radiotherapy.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Most patients with prolactinomas are treated only with medications, but surgery could be considered for some patients in a specialized pituitary center, if higher chances of cure. Dopamine agonists, especially cabergoline, are efficient in reducing tumor size and normalizing prolactin. TSS is the first-line treatment for all other FPAs, but most patients require complex adjuvant treatment, including a combination of therapeutic approaches. Medical therapy is the cornerstone of treatment in all patients after unsuccessful surgery or when surgery cannot be offered and includes somatostatin receptor ligands and dopamine agonists (almost all FPAs), growth hormone receptor antagonists (acromegaly), adrenal steroidogenesis inhibitors and glucocorticoid receptor blockers (Cushing's disease). Novel medical treatments, especially for acromegaly and Cushing's disease are under research.

CONCLUSIONS

An enlarged panel of effective drugs available with increased knowledge of predictive factors for response and/or adverse effects will enhance the possibility to offer a more individualized treatment. This would not only improve disease control and prognosis, but also quality of life.

Investigational drugs for the treatment of acromegaly: new agents to transform therapy

INTRODUCTION

Disease control is essential to decrease morbidity burden and mortality in acromegaly patients. In the last decades, the availability of new drugs increased the rate of disease control. However, up to 55% of patients remain uncontrolled despite available treatment strategies in real-world data. The reasons for this finding may include poor adherence, inadequate tolerability, therapeutic inertia, and high costs. Since acromegaly is a chronic disease and medical therapy is usually life-long, patient's adherence to treatment is fundamental in both achieving and maintaining disease control. Less invasive routes of administration could improve adherence and concur to increase disease control rate.

AREAS COVERED

The aim of current review is to provide a detailed update about investigational drugs for acromegaly treatment currently under investigation as paltusotine, ONO-5788, AP102, GT-02037, ISIS 766720, CAM2024, Lanreotide PRF, DP1038, MTD201, solid dose injection of octreotide.

EXPERT OPINION

Medical therapy of acromegaly is an evolving field. Current studies are addressing patient's need for both new molecules and less invasive routes of administration for already existing drugs. It cannot be ruled out that drugs currently used for other diseases such as cancer could be considered in the future for the treatment of acromegaly.

Real-world value of cabergoline in the treatment of acromegaly

Cabergoline is an ergot derivative long-acting dopamine receptor 2 (DR2) selective agonist administered orally and widely used for the treatment of prolactin-secreting adenomas and Parkinson's disease. DR2 is expressed in most somatotroph adenomas. In acromegaly, cabergoline is used off-label and its role is limited by the relatively modest efficacy for achieving hormonal remission and thus, it is largely indicated in patients with mild elevation of GH/IGF-I postoperatively. It can be given as monotherapy, usually at a higher weekly dose than usually required to treat prolactinomas, but also as an add-on treatment in patients partially responding to the somatostatin receptor ligands octreotide or lanreotide. IGF-1 normalization with cabergoline can be achieved in about a third of the patients. Low baseline IGF-1 level (below 1.5 x ULN) before cabergoline initiation is a good predictor for remission. Combination treatment with the GH receptor antagonist pegvisomant can also be beneficial. The inexpensive, well-tolerated and convenient oral administration of cabergoline makes it an attractive medical therapy for active acromegaly.

Biomarkers of response to treatment in acromegaly

INTRODUCTION

Medical treatment of acromegaly is based in a `trial and error` approach. First-generation somatostatin receptor ligands (fg-SRL) are prescribed as first-line medical therapy to the vast majority of patients, despite lack of disease control in approximately 60% of patients. However, other drugs used in acromegaly treatment are available (cabergoline, pasireotide and pegvisomant).

AREAS COVERED

In this article, we review and discuss the biomarkers of response to medical treatment in acromegaly.

EXPERT OPINION

Biomarkers for fg-SRL that can already be applied in clinical practice are: gender, age, pretreatment GH and IGF-I levels, cytokeratin granulation pattern, and the expression of somatostatin receptor type 2. Using biomarkers of response could guide treatment towards precision medicine with greater efficacy and lower costs.

Efficacy and Safety of Pegvisomant in the Treatment of Acromegaly

Pegvisomant, the first and currently only clinically available growth hormone receptor antagonist, is an effective therapeutic option for the medical treatment of acromegaly, a rare disorder characterized by excessive growth hormone secretion. With now over 20 years of real world experience, its safety and efficacy is well-established. However, several aspects of its clinical use are still controversially discussed. The high cost of pegvisomant has limited its use in several countries, and recent studies have reported a lower efficacy than the initial clinical trials. A reported increase in tumor volume under therapy varies between studies and has been attributed to either actual growth or re-expansion after cessation of somatostatin receptor ligand therapy. Furthermore, different combinations of pegvisomant and other therapeutic agents aiming at reduction of acromegaly disease activity have been proposed to increase or retain effectiveness while lowering side effects and cost. This review aims to assess current clinical data on the safety and efficacy of pegvisomant while also addressing controversies surrounding its use.

Past, Present, and Future of Therapies for Pituitary Neuroendocrine Tumors: Need for Omics and Drug Repositioning Guidance

Innovation roadmaps are important, because they encourage the actors in an innovation ecosystem to creatively imagine multiple possible science future(s), while anticipating the prospects and challenges on the innovation trajectory. In this overarching context, this expert review highlights the present unmet need for therapeutic innovations for pituitary neuroendocrine tumors (PitNETs), also known as pituitary adenomas. Although there are many drugs used in practice to treat PitNETs, many of these drugs can have negative side effects and show highly variable outcomes in terms of overall recovery. Building innovation roadmaps for PitNETs' treatments can allow incorporation of systems biology approaches to bring about insights at multiple levels of cell biology, from genes to proteins to metabolites. Using the systems biology techniques, it will then be possible to offer potential therapeutic strategies for the convergence of preventive approaches and patient-centered disease treatment. Here, we first provide a comprehensive overview of the molecular subtypes of PitNETs and therapeutics for these tumors from the past to the present. We then discuss examples of clinical trials and drug repositioning studies and how multi-omics studies can help in discovery and rational development of new therapeutics for PitNETs. Finally, this expert review offers new public health and personalized medicine approaches on cases that are refractory to conventional treatment or recur despite currently used surgical and/or drug therapy.

Multidisciplinary management of acromegaly: A consensus

The 13th Acromegaly Consensus Conference was held in November 2019 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and comprised acromegaly experts including endocrinologists and neurosurgeons who considered optimal approaches for multidisciplinary acromegaly management. Focused discussions reviewed techniques, results, and side effects of surgery, radiotherapy, and medical therapy, and how advances in technology and novel techniques have changed the way these modalities are used alone or in combination. Effects of treatment on patient outcomes were considered, along with strategies for optimizing and personalizing therapeutic approaches. Expert consensus recommendations emphasize how best to implement available treatment options as part of a multidisciplinary approach at Pituitary Tumor Centers of Excellence.

Novel therapies for acromegaly

Acromegaly is a systemic disease associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Most of these comorbidities can be prevented or delayed with adequate disease treatment. Although three modalities of treatment (surgery, medical treatment, and radiotherapy) are available and new drugs were approved in the last decades, there are still some patients that maintain disease activity despite treatment. Therefore, there is a need for novel therapies for acromegaly and for that purpose new formulations of currently used drugs and also new drugs are currently under study. In this review, we summarize the novel therapies for acromegaly.

Acromegaly: Update on Management and Long-Term Morbidities

Acromegaly is a systemic disease associated with great morbidity and increased mortality if not adequately treated. In the past decades much improvement has been achieved in its treatment and in the knowledge of its comorbidities. We provide an update of acromegaly management with current recommendations. We also address long-term comorbidities emphasizing the changing face of the disease in more recent series, with a decrease of cardiovascular disease severity and an increased awareness of comorbidities like bone disease, manifested mainly as vertebral fractures and the change in the main cause of death (from cardiovascular disease to cancer in more recent series).

The Role of Dopamine Agonists in Pituitary Adenomas

Dopamine agonist therapy is the primary therapy for prolactin-secreting adenomas and usually results in normoprolactinemia, eugonadism, and tumor reduction. Cabergoline is superior to bromocriptine with regard to efficacy and tolerance. Withdrawal of cabergoline can be attempted in patients with normal prolactin levels on low doses of medication and evidence of radiographic tumor involution. Dopamine agonists have been used off label in patients with acromegaly, Cushing disease, and nonfunctioning adenomas. A trial of cabergoline monotherapy can be effective in patients with biochemically mild acromegaly. Cabergoline combination with somatostatin receptor ligands or pegvisomant improves insulin-like growth factor level 1 in majority of patients.

Octreotide-Resistant Acromegaly: Challenges and Solutions

Acromegaly is a rare and severe disease caused by an increased and autonomous secretion of growth hormone (GH), thus resulting in high circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). Comorbidities and mortality rate are closely related to the disease duration. However, in most cases achieving biochemical control means reducing or even normalizing mortality and restoring normal life expectancy. Current treatment for acromegaly includes neurosurgery, radiotherapy and medical therapy. Transsphenoidal surgery often represents the recommended first-line treatment. First-generation somatostatin receptor ligands (SRLs) are the drug of choice in patients with persistent disease after surgery and are suggested as first-line treatment for those ineligible for surgery. However, only about half of patients treated with octreotide (or lanreotide) achieve biochemical control. Other available drugs approved for clinical use are the second-generation SRL pasireotide, the dopamine agonist cabergoline, and the GH-receptor antagonist pegvisomant. In the present paper, we revised the current literature about the management of acromegaly, aiming to highlight the most relevant and recent therapeutic strategies proposed for patients resistant to first-line medical therapy. Furthermore, we discussed the potential molecular mechanisms involved in the variable response to first-generation SRLs. Due to the availability of different medical therapies, the choice for the most appropriate drug can be currently based also on the peculiar clinical characteristics of each patient.

Italian Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AME) and Italian AACE Chapter Position Statement for Clinical Practice: Acromegaly - Part 2: Therapeutic Issues

Any newly diagnosed patient should be referred to a multidisciplinary team experienced in the treatment of pituitary adenomas. The therapeutic management of acromegaly always requires a personalized strategy. Normal age-matched IGF-I values are the treatment goal. Transsphenoidal surgery by an expert neurosurgeon is the primary treatment modality for most patients, especially if there are neurological complications. In patients with poor clinical conditions or who refuse surgery, primary medical treatment should be offered, firstly with somatostatin analogs (SSAs). In patients who do not reach hormonal targets with first-generation depot SSAs, a second pharmacological option with pasireotide LAR or pegvisomant (alone or combined with SSA) should be offered. Irradiation could be proposed to patients with surgical remnants who would like to be free from long-term medical therapies or those with persistent disease activity or tumor growth despite surgery or medical therapy. Since the therapeutic tools available enable therapeutic targets to be achieved in most cases, the challenge is to focus more on the quality of life.

The position of combined medical treatment in acromegaly

Advances in combination medical treatment have offer new perspectives for acromegaly patients with persistent disease activity despite receiving the available medical monotherapies. The outcomes of combination medical treatment may reflect both additive and synergistic effects. This review focuses on combination medical treatment and its current position in acromegaly, based on clinical studies evaluating the efficacy and safety of combined medical treatment(s) and our own experiences with combination therapy. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2019;63(6):646-52.

Systemic Complications of Acromegaly and the Impact of the Current Treatment Landscape: An Update

Acromegaly is a chronic systemic disease with many complications and is associated with increased mortality when not adequately treated. Substantial advances in acromegaly treatment, as well as in the treatment of many of its complications, mainly diabetes mellitus, heart failure, and arterial hypertension, were achieved in the last decades. These developments allowed change in both prevalence and severity of some acromegaly complications and furthermore resulted in a reduction of mortality. Currently, mortality seems to be similar to the general population in adequately treated patients with acromegaly. In this review, we update the knowledge in complications of acromegaly and detail the effects of different acromegaly treatment options on these complications. Incidence of mortality, its correlation with GH (cumulative exposure vs last value), and IGF-I levels and the shift in the main cause of mortality in patients with acromegaly are also addressed.

The causes and consequences of pituitary gigantism

In the general population, height is determined by a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Pituitary gigantism is a rare but very important subgroup of patients with excessive height, as it has an identifiable and clinically treatable cause. The disease is caused by chronic growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 secretion from a pituitary somatotrope adenoma that forms before the closure of the epiphyses. If not controlled effectively, this hormonal hypersecretion could lead to extremely elevated final adult height. The past 10 years have seen marked advances in the understanding of pituitary gigantism, including the identification of genetic causes in ~50% of cases, such as mutations in the AIP gene or chromosome Xq26.3 duplications in X-linked acrogigantism syndrome. Pituitary gigantism has a male preponderance, and patients usually have large pituitary adenomas. The large tumour size, together with the young age of patients and frequent resistance to medical therapy, makes the management of pituitary gigantism complex. Early diagnosis and rapid referral for effective therapy appear to improve outcomes in patients with pituitary gigantism; therefore, a high level of clinical suspicion and efficient use of diagnostic resources is key to controlling overgrowth and preventing patients from reaching very elevated final adult heights.

Pituitary Diseases and Bone

Neuroendocrinology of bone is a new area of research based on the evidence that pituitary hormones may directly modulate bone remodeling and metabolism. Skeletal fragility associated with high risk of fractures is a common complication of several pituitary diseases such as hypopituitarism, Cushing disease, acromegaly, and hyperprolactinemia. As in other forms of secondary osteoporosis, pituitary diseases generally affect bone quality more than bone quantity, and fractures may occur even in the presence of normal or low-normal bone mineral density as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, making difficult the prediction of fractures in these clinical settings. Treatment of pituitary hormone excess and deficiency generally improves skeletal health, although some patients remain at high risk of fractures, and treatment with bone-active drugs may become mandatory. The aim of this review is to discuss the physiological, pathophysiological, and clinical insights of bone involvement in pituitary diseases.

How are growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 reported as markers for drug effectiveness in clinical acromegaly research? A comprehensive methodologic review

OBJECTIVE

In rare disease research, most randomized prospective clinical trials can only use limited number of patients and are comprised of highly heterogeneous populations. Therefore, it is crucial to report the results in such a manner that it allows for comparison of treatment effectiveness and biochemical control between studies. The aim of this review was to investigate the current methods that are being applied to measure and report growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) as markers for drug effectiveness in clinical acromegaly research.

SEARCH STRATEGY

A systematic search of recent prospective and retrospective studies, published between 2012 and 2017, that studied the effects of somatostatin analogues or dopamine agonists in acromegaly patients was performed. The markers of interest were GH, IGF-1, and the suppression of GH after an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Additionally, the use of pharmacokinetic (PK) measurements in these studies was analyzed. The sampling design, cut-off for biochemical control, reported units, and used summary statistics were summarized.

RESULTS

A total of 49 articles were selected out of the 263 screened abstracts. IGF-1 concentrations were measured in all 49 studies, GH in 45 studies, and an OGTT was performed in 11 studies. A wide range of different cut-off values and sampling designs were used to determine biochemical control in acromegaly patients. The summary statistics were reported in various ways, with the percentage of biochemical control most frequently used. Nine studies sampled the PK at one or more time points. Non-compartmental analyses were commonly performed on the available PK data.

CONCLUSIONS

The way GH and IGF-1 are measured and reported in acromegaly research varies considerably. A consensus on how to report study results would enable better comparisons between studies, thereby improving evidence based decision making to optimize treatment in acromegaly.

Dopamine Agonists for Pituitary Adenomas

Dopamine agonists (DA) are well established as first-line therapy for prolactinomas. These tumors express high levels of dopamine 2 receptors (D2R), leading to the strong efficacy of DA in reducing tumor size and hormonal secretion. Other pituitary tumor subtypes express D2R to varying degrees, leading to an extensive body of research into potential off-label use of DA in non-prolactinoma pituitary tumors. Preclinical models of Cushing's disease, acromegaly, and nonfunctioning pituitary tumors (NFPT) demonstrate D2R expression in cell lines and cultured tumors as well as effectiveness of DA in reducing hormonal secretion in functioning tumors and arresting tumor proliferation. Clinical studies have shown some efficacy of DA in treatment of these tumors. In Cushing's disease, DA therapy results in normalization of urinary cortisol levels in approximately 25% of patients, but reported rates of tumor shrinkage are very low; in acromegaly, DA therapy leads to normalization of insulin-like growth factor I and tumor shrinkage in approximately one-third of patients, and improved responses when used in combination with somatostatin receptor ligands. Among patients with NFPT, pooled results show 30% experience reduction of tumor size and 58% show stabilization of disease. DA therapy appears to have some clinical benefit in patients with non-prolactinoma pituitary tumors, and may be an option for medical therapy in some clinical scenarios.

Cabergoline in acromegaly

Acromegaly, a rare disease due to growth hormone (GH) hypersecretion by a pituitary adenoma, is associated with severe comorbidity and premature death if not adequately treated. The usual first-line treatment is surgery. Various drugs, including somatostatin receptor ligands, dopamine agonists and GH receptor antagonists, are now available for use if surgery fails to suppress GH/IGF-I hypersecretion. Cabergoline, now the preferred dopamine agonist for treating hyperprolactinemia, is also used off-label for treating acromegaly. Cabergoline monotherapy is reported to normalize IGF-I levels in more than one-third of patients with acromegaly. When a somatostatin receptor ligand proves ineffective, cabergoline add-on therapy normalizes the IGF-I level in 40-50% of patients. Finally, when combined with the GH receptor antagonist pegvisomant in patients with mild uncontrolled disease, cabergoline helps to achieve normal IGF-I levels while avoiding the need for high-dose pegvisomant. Cabergoline is also inexpensive and well tolerated; in particular, it does not appear to promote heart valve disease.

The role of combination medical therapy in the treatment of acromegaly

PURPOSE

Uncontrolled acromegaly results in approximately 2-fold excess mortality. Pituitary surgery is first-line therapy, and medical treatment is indicated for persistent disease. While cabergoline and pegvisomant are used in select patients, somatostatin receptor ligands (SRLs) remain the cornerstone of medical treatment. Management of patients poorly responsive to SRLs is therefore, challenging. The purpose of this review is to highlight the options for combination medical therapy in the treatment of acromegaly, with an emphasis on efficacy and safety.

METHODS

All original articles/abstracts detailing combination medical therapy in acromegaly were identified from a PubMed search.

RESULTS

Studies reviewed included retrospective and open-label prospective studies. While the combination of SRL and cabergoline was generally well tolerated, a lower baseline insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) level was the best predictor of efficacy; this combination may be most effective in patients with mildly elevated IGF-1. SRL-pegvisomant combination normalized IGF-1 in the majority of patients; continued efficacy despite individual drug dosing reduction was also reported. The risk of significant liver enzyme elevation was, however, higher than that reported with SRL monotherapy; close monitoring is recommended. Data on pegvisomant-cabergoline combination is limited, but this may be an option in the setting of SRL intolerance. Reports on temozolomide used in combination with other medical therapies in patients with aggressive GH-secreting tumors are also summarized.

CONCLUSION

While more prospective, randomized controlled trials on long-term efficacy and safety are needed, combination medical therapy remains a treatment strategy that should be considered for acromegaly patients poorly responsive to SRLs.

Somatostatin analogs, cabergoline and pegvisomant: comparing the efficacy of medical treatment for acromegaly

Therapies for acromegaly aim at normalizing hormonal excess and controlling tumor growth . Therapeutic approaches are surgery, pharmacotherapy and radiotherapy. Area covered: This review focuses on the role of medical therapy of acromegaly, comparing the efficacy of somatostatin analogues (SSA), dopamine-agonists (DA) and pegvisomant (PEG), the three available drug classes for treating acromegaly. To clarify the difference in response rates reported in the literature for these therapies, we performed a search for original articles published in PubMed. SSA represent the first-line approach to medical treatment. This therapy is effective in controlling acromegaly in about 40% of patients, however there are great differences in the reported hormonal efficacy of SSA in the different series. In patients partially resistant to SSA, cabergoline can be added when hormonal levels are close to normalization, resulting effective in control IGF-I levels in 43% of patients. In patients with higher hormonal levels PEG is indicated, normalizing IGF-I levels in 79.8% and 80.6% of cases when used in monotherapy or in combination with SSA. Pasireotide, the newly developed SSA multi-ligand receptor, represents a new option in SSA resistant patients. Expert commentary: Medical therapy represents an important therapeutic option resulting safe and effective in controlling acromegaly in a high percentage of patients. The best treatment should be individually tailored for each patient, taking into account sex, age, comorbidities, tumor characteristics and hormonal levels.

Update on the use of oral octreotide therapy for acromegaly

Somatostatin analogs are most commonly used in pharmacological treatment of acromegaly. Pegvisomant and dopamine agonists are alternatives, which are used to a lesser extent. Dopamine agonists are the only orally applicable medication but are less effective than the other options. For a large number of patients, life-long pharmacotherapy has to be applied and frequent injections represent a reduction of quality of life for many of them. Areas covered: Recently published evidence for the use of oral octreotide therapy for acromegaly. Expert commentary: Oral octreotide is a novel and effective treatment for acromegaly and the side effects have been shown to be comparable to the injectable SSAs. The combination with a transient permeability enhancer allows intestinal permeation but also enables molecules with a size <70 kDa to pass transiently. This does not seem to have an acute or subacute consequence, but the long-term effect is still elusive. Therefore, more long-term trials are desirable.

Long-term treatment with pegvisomant for acromegaly: a 10-year experience

BACKGROUND

Efficacy of the GH-receptor antagonist pegvisomant (PEG) has differed between preclinical and observational studies mainly due to dose adjustment and IGF-I normalization criteria. An escape phenomenon has also been described, but its definition and underlying causes have not been fully established.

OBJECTIVE

To re-evaluate the outcomes of long-term PEG in a series of previously published patients and analyse the escape phenomenon.

METHODS

We reviewed all patients with acromegaly resistant to SSA in whom PEG was started as monotherapy, who had been included in a previous publication. We prospectively evaluated 64 (56·3% women) from six tertiary care referral hospitals in Spain, for whom data as of June 2014 were available. Escape to PEG was defined as confirmed loss of biochemical control (IGF-I >1·2xULN), after at least 6 months of previous control with a stable dose of PEG.

RESULTS

Patients were followed up for 13·0 (5·9-34·8) years since diagnosis, and 9·0 (4·1-10·4) years since the first administration of PEG. Fifty-one (89·5%) patients had an adequate IGF-I control at the last follow-up visit, 9 of them without treatment. Tumour growth was reported in 6 of 64 cases (9·4%), none of whom had received prior radiotherapy (P = 0·011). Seven patients died during follow-up. We found 16 escapes in 10 patients (15·6%). We identified potential underlying causes in 9 cases (tumour regrowth, previous treatment modifications, concomitant menopause and change in testosterone administration). The reason was unknown in 7 escapes, which occurred in 6 patients (9·4%). All patients, except one, achieved subsequent biochemical control after treatment adjustment.

CONCLUSIONS

We reassure the efficacy and safety of long-term PEG. An escape phenomenon may occur, but it can be overcome by adjusting therapy.

Genetic Predictors of Response to Different Medical Therapies in Acromegaly

In the era of predictive medicine, management of diseases is evolving into a more personal and individualized approach, as more data are available regarding clinical, biochemical, radiological, molecular, histopathological, and genetic aspects. In the particular setting of acromegaly, which is a rare, chronic, debilitating, and disfiguring disease, an optimized approach deems even more necessary, especially because of an associated increased morbidity and mortality, the impact on patients' quality of life, and the increased cost of frequently necessary life-long treatments. In this paper, we review the available studies that address potential genetic influences on acromegaly, their role in the outcome, and response to treatments, as well as their contribution to the risk of developing side effects. We focus mainly on pharmacogenetic factors involved during treatment with dopamine agonists, somatostatin analogs, and pegvisomant. Specifically, mutations in dopamine receptors, somatostatin receptors, growth hormone receptors, and metabolic pathways involved in growth hormone action; polymorphisms in the insulin-like growth factor and the insulin-like growth factor binding proteins; and polymorphisms in other genes that may determine differences in the frequency of developing adverse events.

Medical Treatment of Acromegaly with Dopamine Agonists or Somatostatin Analogs

Treatment of acromegaly aims to correct (or prevent) tumor compression of surrounding tissues by excising the disease-causing lesion and reduce growth hormone (GH) and IGF-1 levels to normal values. When surgery (the usual first-line treatment) fails to correct GH/IGF-1 hypersecretion, medical treatment with dopamine agonists (DAs; particularly cabergoline) or somatostatin analogs (SAs) can be used. The GH receptor antagonist pegvisomant is helpful in patients who are totally or partially resistant to SAs and can be given in association with both SAs and/or DAs. Thanks to this multistep therapeutic strategy, adequate hormonal disease control is achieved in most patients, giving them normal life expectancy. Comorbidities associated with acromegaly generally improve after treatment, but persistent sequelae may nonetheless impair quality of life.

Prediction of therapy response in acromegalic patients under pegvisomant therapy within the German ACROSTUDY cohort

PURPOSE

This study aimed at investigating predicting factors for therapy response under growth hormone receptor antagonist therapy with a focus on subjective and patient-oriented measures.

METHODS

Observational, multicenter nested-cohort study including 271 selected patients with the diagnosis of acromegaly and a minimum of one-year follow-up period within the German ACROSTUDY cohort (total cohort: n = 514). Outcome measures were the change of the biomarker IGF-1 (IGF-1 change and IGF-1 normalisation) between baseline and after 1 year of pegvisomant therapy (12 ± 6 months). Main predictors were patient-assessed subjective measures according to the Patient-Assessed Acromegaly Symptom Questionnaire (PASQ) in conjugation with age, gender, BMI, max. dosage of pegvisomant at follow-up and IGF-1 before the start of pegvisomant therapy.

RESULTS

The mean age of the study population was 51.2 (13.9) years and the mean BMI was 29.5 (5.1) kg/m(2). In adjusted analyses, none of the individual perceived health (PASQ) scores, but age, BMI and IGF-1 at baseline were predictive for an IGF-1 decrease after 1 year of pegvisomant therapy and BMI and IGF-1, but equally none of the PASQ items, were predicting IGF-1 normalisation.

CONCLUSIONS

Age, BMI and baseline IGF-1 but not subjective perceived health measures predict therapy response under second line medical therapy with pegvisomant.

Does pegvisomant treatment expertise improve control of resistant acromegaly? The Italian ACROSTUDY experience

OBJECTIVE

GH receptor antagonist pegvisomant is indicated for treatment of patients with resistant acromegaly. We compared safety and treatment outcomes of pegvisomant therapy in patients managed by Italian centers enrolling less or more than 15 cases in ACROSTUDY, a safety surveillance study of long-term pegvisomant treatment of patients with acromegaly. A noninterventional safety surveillance study in which safety and treatment outcomes of pegvisomant were evaluated on the basis of data collected during a 7-year period.

METHODS

A total of 204 acromegaly patients treated by seven centers enrolling 16-49 patients each (group A) and 137 subjects by 18 centers following 3-14 cases ( group B).

RESULTS

Patients of group A and B were treated for 4.4 ± 2.7 and 4.2 ± 2.2 years, respectively. IGF-1 ULN normalized in 64.4 % (n = 56) and 54.4 % (n = 31) in group A and B, respectively, after 1-year treatment, and in 57.3 % (n = 106) and 72.5 % (n = 87) at last visit. Starting doses were significantly higher in group A. They were progressively increased during treatment in both groups, but were higher in uncontrolled patients than in controlled ones only in group A. Reported adverse events were more frequent, and the prevalence of patients with adverse events was higher in group B.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of this original study approach, we could speculate that in the centers in which more patients are treated with pegvisomant, less adverse events are reported, but the long-term effectiveness is lower than in centers with less cases, perhaps because of an inadequate patient's selection.

60 YEARS OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY: Acromegaly

Acromegaly (ACM) is a chronic, progressive disorder caused by the persistent hypersecretion of GH, in the vast majority of cases secreted by a pituitary adenoma. The consequent increase in IGF1 (a GH-induced liver protein) is responsible for most clinical features and for the systemic complications associated with increased mortality. The clinical diagnosis, based on symptoms related to GH excess or the presence of a pituitary mass, is often delayed many years because of the slow progression of the disease. Initial testing relies on measuring the serum IGF1 concentration. The oral glucose tolerance test with concomitant GH measurement is the gold-standard diagnostic test. The therapeutic options for ACM are surgery, medical treatment, and radiotherapy (RT). The outcome of surgery is very good for microadenomas (80-90% cure rate), but at least half of the macroadenomas (most frequently encountered in ACM patients) are not cured surgically. Somatostatin analogs are mainly indicated after surgical failure. Currently their routine use as primary therapy is not recommended. Dopamine agonists are useful in a minority of cases. Pegvisomant is indicated for patients refractory to surgery and other medical treatments. RT is employed sparingly, in cases of persistent disease activity despite other treatments, due to its long-term side effects. With complex, combined treatment, at least three-quarters of the cases are controlled according to current criteria. With proper control of the disease, the specific complications are partially improved and the mortality rate is close to that of the background population.

Cabergoline use for pituitary tumors and valvular disorders

Cabergoline (CAB) is widely used for the medical treatment of pituitary tumors, particularly those associated with hormone hypersecretion. Whether treatment with CAB is associated with an increased risk of clinically relevant cardiac valve disease in patients with pituitary tumors is still debated. In most studies, CAB has been found not associated with an increased risk of significant valvulopathy, and no correlation has been shown between valvular abnormalities and CAB duration or cumulative dose. This review provides an overview of the studies reporting on the outcome of CAB in terms of cardiac valve disease in patients with pituitary tumors.

Cabergoline treatment in acromegaly: pros

Cabergoline is an ergot-derived dopamine D2 receptor agonist which may be effective for the medical management of acromegaly. Its efficacy in reducing growth hormone and IGF-I levels, as well as its antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects on pituitary tumor cells, has been observed in several studies. Cabergoline may be used alone or as an add-on therapy to patients who are partially resistant to somatostatin analogs (SSA), or who do not achieve complete control with maximum doses of pegvisomant (PEG). Additionally, the convenience of its oral administration, allowing better compliance, and its lower economic cost, in comparison with SSA and PEG, favor cabergoline as an attractive option for acromegalic patients, who frequently require long-life medical treatment to achieve disease control. The few adverse events observed with prolonged DA therapy, mainly regarding cardiac valve disease, are not frequent at the doses generally used in acromegaly.

Cabergoline treatment in acromegaly: cons

Many options are available for the treatment of acromegaly, including surgery, radiotherapy, and medical treatment. Cabergoline (CAB), a dopamine agonist with high affinity for dopamine receptor type 2, has been used both in monotherapy and in conjunction with somatostatin analogs (SSAs). Although it is administered orally and has a relatively lower-cost in comparison with SSAs, few studies have demonstrated its usefulness, there is a lack of randomized-controlled trials and other drugs (SSAs and pegvisomant) with more data in the literature are available; these issues are the main drawbacks of adopting CAB for the treatment of acromegaly.