Longer-Term Outcomes of the Incredible Years Parenting Intervention

A Scoping Review of Prevention Classification in Mental Health: Examining the Application of Caplan's and Gordon's Prevention Frameworks (2018-2024)

Mental health prevention is a global priority owing to the increasing burden of mental disorders exacerbated by global crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, economic instability, and armed conflicts. These crises have heightened the need for effective preventive strategies addressing mental health across different life stages and populations. To structure and classify such strategies, Caplan's and Gordon's frameworks have been widely used, with one focusing on disease progression and the other on population risk. Although both frameworks are frequently used in mental health prevention, their application in clinical trials remains unexplored. This review addresses this gap by examining how Caplan's and Gordon's frameworks have been applied in mental health prevention, identifying research gaps, and exploring their potential for their combined application to enhance prevention strategies. A scoping review was conducted following PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Studies were selected based on predefined criteria and the data were synthesized. The search spanned PubMed, Scopus, APA PsycArticles, and PubPsych, covering peer-reviewed clinical trials, including randomized controlled trials, published between 2018 and 2024 in English or German. Eligible studies classified interventions based on Caplan's framework, which focuses on disease stage (primary, secondary, tertiary), or Gordon's framework, which categorizes prevention by population risk (universal, selective, indicated). Studies had to focus on mental health prevention, include populations relevant to mental health and well-being, and report mental health or well-being outcomes. Of the 40 included studies, six applied Caplan's framework, 30 applied Gordon's framework and three used a modified classification based on Gordon's approach. One study applied both frameworks, highlighting that their complementary use is rare. Studies were conducted in 19 countries, with the highest number from Germany (n = 8), the USA (n = 8), and the Netherlands (n = 6), across four continents (Asia, n = 5; Australia, n = 5; Europe, n = 22; North America, n = 8). Gordon's framework was applied more frequently, particularly in universal (n = 15) and indicated prevention (n = 12), while Caplan's framework was used mainly in primary prevention (n = 4). Depression (n = 25), anxiety (n = 21), stress (n = 8), and general mental health (n = 8) were the most frequently assessed outcomes. The studies targeted diverse populations, including children (n = 7), adolescents (n = 8), children and adolescents (n = 1) parents and their children or adolescents (n = 2), university students (n = 6), working adults (n = 7), older adults (n = 1), and adults without specifying (n = 8). This review highlights the underutilized potential of integrating Caplan's and Gordon's frameworks in mental health interventions. Two application examples illustrate how these frameworks can be combined to structure prevention strategies more effectively. Future research should explore combining these frameworks to enhance prevention strategies and address the emerging global health challenges.

Practitioner Review: A core competencies perspective on the evidence-based treatment of child conduct problems

BACKGROUND

The effective treatment of child conduct problems is understood to rely on a range of therapist competencies, yet these have rarely been an explicit focus of research. In this practitioner review, we examine core competencies for the delivery of evidence-based parenting interventions for conduct problems in early-to-middle childhood. These are examined in light of research into the common elements shared by these interventions, literature regarding common challenges in these interventions, and conceptualisations of such competencies in other fields of mental health.

METHODS

We report on the development of a novel consensus-based model of core competencies for evidence-based practice in this field, based on consultation with an international expert panel. This includes competencies as they apply to complex presentations of conduct problems.

RESULTS

Despite considerable variation among widely disseminated programmes in terms of content, format and skills-training practices, there is strong consensus among practitioners regarding core competencies. These relate to three broad domains: (a) generic therapeutic competencies; (b) parenting intervention competencies; (c) specific parenting skills/techniques.

CONCLUSIONS

Practitioners working with conduct problems, particularly complex presentations thereof, require competencies for engaging not only mothers, but fathers and diverse/non-traditional caregivers and other stakeholders, in evidence-based parenting interventions. Moreover, the successful delivery of these interventions necessitates competencies that extend beyond behaviour management and encompass broader aspects of the family system and the wider ecology of the child.

A pilot randomized control trial on the feasibility, acceptability, and initial effects of a digital-assisted parenting intervention for promoting mental health in Malaysian adolescents

Objective

Online parenting interventions for enhancing child development, specifically mental health is relatively new in Malaysia. This pilot study tests the feasibility, acceptability, and initial effects of a universal digital-assisted parenting intervention (DaPI) in promoting mental health in adolescents by improving parental behaviors and self-efficacy.

Methods

A two-arm pilot randomized controlled trial was conducted. Twenty-four mothers of adolescent aged 10 to 14 years from a non-clinical sample were recruited online and randomly allocated into two groups (intervention [DaPI] and waitlist-control [WLC]). Eight weekly sessions were delivered online via technological devices. Feasibility outcomes were based on the participants' engagement in DaPI and study retention. Primary (parental behaviors and self-efficacy) and secondary (adolescent mental health) outcomes were assessed using an online survey at baseline (T0), post-intervention (T1), and 1-month follow-up (T2). Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics and an intention-to-treat approach.

Results

The DaPI was well received by the mothers. Retention was high (81.8%) in both groups and intervention adherence was excellent (91.6%). Within-group analyses showed a significant decrease in physical control at T2 and an increase in parental self-efficacy at T1 and T2 among the DaPI mothers. No significant differences were observed in adolescents' mental health at any time point. As for the WLC group, there were no significant differences in all the outcome variables across the three assessment moments. Between groups analyses revealed DaPI mothers had significant differences in proactive parenting at T1, and in positive reinforcement and lax control at T2. There were no significant differences in adolescents' mental health between the groups at any time point.

Discussion

The DaPI is feasible and acceptable in the Malaysian context. Findings show promise regarding the initial effects of the DaPI. However, a larger RCT is needed to determine its effectiveness in promoting mental health of adolescents.

Trial registration

https://www.irct.ir/; identifier: IRCT20211129053207N1.

Commentary: Cognitive stimulation and executive functions in the prevention and treatment of childhood disorders - reflection on Phillips et al., 2023

The study by Phillips et al. (Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2023) shows that preschool executive functions (EF) are a transdiagnostic mechanism through which deprivation increases the risk for psychopathology in adolescence. In addition, deprivation appeared to be a key mechanism through which economic adversity (i.e., lower income-to-needs ratio and maternal education) undermines EF and increases the risk for psychopathology in adolescence. In this commentary, implications for early prevention and treatment of childhood disorders are discussed. In view of optimal EF development attention is needed to cognitive and social stimulation both in: (a) selective prevention targeting preschool children at high risk for childhood disorders due to low socioeconomic status; (b) indicated prevention targeting preschool children with minimal but detectable symptoms from low socioeconomic status families; and (c) treatment targeting preschool children with a clinical disorder from low socioeconomic status families.

Behavior Management Training for Parents of Children with Preschool ADHD Based on Parent-Child Interactions: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled, Follow-Up Study

Objective

There is a need to develop optimized, evidence-based parent training programs tailored for preschoolers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The objective of this study was to explore a behavioral management training program aimed at the parents of preschool children with ADHD, which directly analyzes parent-child interaction from the perspective of system theory, and the intervention effect on ADHD in preschool children.

Methods

A multicenter randomized controlled study was conducted using system-based group therapy with 62 parents of preschool children with ADHD aged four to six years. ADHD symptoms, behavioral and emotional problems, and social functioning were compared with 61 control children whose parents did not receive training by applying the ADHD Rating Scale (ADHD-RS), Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), and Questionnaire-Children with Difficulties (QCD) at the time of subject entry and at two and six months of entry, respectively.

Results

The results of the ADHD-RS assessment showed that children in the intervention group had significantly lower factor scores for attention deficit, hyperactivity, and impulsivity than the children in the control group after parental training and at follow-up (P < 0.05). Total scores on the SDQ scale, as well as character problems, hyperactivity, and peer interaction scores, significantly decreased with statistically significant differences (all P < 0.05), and emotional symptoms and prosocial behavior did not notable decline (P > 0.05). Compared with the control group, the total scores of the QCD scale and the scores of each factor in the intervention group remained significantly higher at the follow-up (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

After continuous intervention for eight weeks, parents were able to help the children with preschool ADHD to improve their ADHD symptoms and emotional behavioral and social functioning significantly, and the efficacy was maintained at the four-month follow-up; the systemic-based parent training in behavior management (PTBM) is applicable to the treatment of preschool ADHD and is worth promoting.

Oppositional defiant disorder

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a disruptive behaviour disorder involving an ongoing pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behaviour and vindictiveness. Onset is typically before 8 years of age, although ODD can be diagnosed in both children and adults. This disorder is associated with substantial social and economic burden, and childhood ODD is one of the most common precursors of other mental health problems that can arise across the lifespan. The population prevalence of ODD is ~3 to 5%. A higher prevalence in males than females has been reported, particularly before adolescence. No single risk factor accounts for ODD. The development of this disorder seems to arise from the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, and mechanisms embedded in social relationships are understood to contribute to its maintenance. The treatment of ODD is often successful, and relatively brief parenting interventions produce large sized treatment effects in early childhood. Accordingly, ODD represents an important focus for research, practice and policy concerning early intervention and prevention in mental health.

Do the Temperamental Characteristics of Both Mother and Child Influence the Well-Being of Adopted and Non-Adopted Children?

(1) Background: For decades, the temperaments of infants and small children have been a focus of studies in human development and been seen as a potential contributor to children’s developmental patterns. However, less is known about the interplay between the temperamental characteristics of mothers and their children in the context of explaining variations in developmental outcomes. The aim of our study was to explore the associations—with or without genetic links—of the temperaments and psychological distress of mothers and the temperaments of children with behavioral problems in a group of internationally adopted children and their adoptive mothers and in a group of non-adopted children and their mothers. (2) Methods: Data (n = 170) were derived from the ongoing Finnish Adoption (FinAdo) follow-up study. The children included were under the age of 7 years; 74 were adopted internationally through legal agencies between October 2010 and December 2016, and the remaining 96 were non-adopted children living with their birth parents (biological group) recruited from day-care centers. We used Mary Rothbart’s temperament questionnaires to assess temperament, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) to obtain data on the children’s behavioral/emotional problems and competencies, and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) to assess parental psychological distress. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital District of Southwest Finland, and written informed consent was obtained from the parents and the children themselves. (3) Results: The negative affectivities of both mothers and children were associated with the total CBCL and with both internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors after adjusting for age, gender, and adoption status. Both relationships remained significant when tested simultaneously, suggesting additive effects. Maternal negative affect was associated with problem behavior irrespective of child extraversion/surgency. Child extraversion/surgency was associated with lower levels of all internalizing behavioral problems when adjusted for maternal sociability. Child negative affect was associated with all behavioral problem measures irrespective of maternal sociability or maternal psychological distress. Maternal distress was associated with child problem behaviors only in children with low extraversion/surgency. (4) Limitations: The sample size was relatively small, and the information was gathered solely with questionnaires. (5) Conclusions: The results of the study may be clinically significant. Child negative affect, maternal negative affect, and maternal experienced distress, combined with low child extraversion/surgency, may increase the risk of child problem behaviors in both adoptees and non-adoptees.

COVID-19 and the Acceleration of Behavioral Parent Training Telehealth: Current Status and Future Directions

The SARS-COV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic and associated social distancing guidelines have accelerated the telehealth transition in mental health. For those providing Behavioral Parent Training (BPT), this transition has called for moving sessions that are traditionally clinic-based, active, and directive to engaging, supporting, and treating families of children with behavior disorders remotely in their homes. Whereas many difficulties accompany this transition, the lessons learned during the current public health crisis have the potential to transform BPT service delivery on a large scale in ways that address many of its long-standing limitations. We describe both challenges and opportunities and consider the possibilities inherent in a large scale BPT service delivery model capable of increasing the reach and impact of evidence-based treatment for all families.

Longitudinal Outcomes of Child Parent Psychotherapy: Response to Commentaries

In response to the commentaries provided by Chu et al. (2020), Harmon et al. (2020), and McMahon & Maxwell (2020) on our longitudinal follow-up of Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) with mothers with depression and their children, we focus on two domains: accessibility and scalability of CPP and identifying empirically supported mechanisms of change in attachment intervention research. In considering the accessibility and scalability of CPP, we discuss issues related to attrition, length of intervention, and implementation with caregivers with depression. Our discussion of mechanisms of change in attachment interventions explores active comparison conditions, theorized mediators, intervention modalities, assessment methods, and longitudinal research designs. This conversation is intended to highlight important areas for future research in the field of attachment interventions, with the goal of informing clinical and systems-level policies and practices.