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Döbler NA, Carbon CC. Does creating the perfect child mean enforcing or dismantling normative gender stereotypes? Evidence from an interactive virtual genetic engineering exhibit. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2025; 254:104748. [PMID: 40010267 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2024] [Revised: 12/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/20/2025] [Indexed: 02/28/2025] Open
Abstract
Genetic engineering of humans is a controversial practice with unknown societal effects. Gender constitutes an important evaluative background for human behavior and traits. This manifests within action-guiding normative gender stereotypes. This study investigates to which extent these stereotypes may influence the application of genetic engineering. After highlighting potential motivations to enact stereotypes biotechnologically, we propose two potential strategies. People may design future children in close accordance with contemporary gender stereotypes, e.g., to minimize their risk of being punished for non-confirmation, or may create individuals that counteract these stereotypes, e.g., to create a more gender-egalitarian future. To test these hypotheses, we analyzed a large-scale dataset (13,641 virtual children) from an interactive museum exhibit. Here, visitors could design their "perfect child." Gender-dependent differences in designed Big-5-like personality traits and intelligence, musicality, creativity, and sportiness yielded evidence for behavior predicted by both strategies and were inconclusive regarding the dominance of one strategy. Confirming contemporary stereotypes, children deliberately chosen to be male were designed with lower sensibility but higher sportiness than those deliberately chosen to be female. These effects were accompanied by a relatively higher probability of decreasing sensibility and increasing sportiness of these male children. Non-differences among traits like sociality and conscientiousness disconfirmed normative stereotypes and suggested a more egalitarian design. Effect direction, strength, and certainty depended on whether gender was picked deliberately and other factors. Although the ecological setting and methodological limitations hinder a clear interpretation, we provide initial evidence on how genetically engineered children can "essentially" embody gender normativity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas A Döbler
- Department of General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, Germany; Research Group EPÆG (Ergonomics, Psychological Aesthetics, Gestalt), Germany; Bamberg Graduate School of Affective and Cognitive Sciences (BaGrACS), University of Bamberg, Germany.
| | - Claus-Christian Carbon
- Department of General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, Germany; Research Group EPÆG (Ergonomics, Psychological Aesthetics, Gestalt), Germany; Bamberg Graduate School of Affective and Cognitive Sciences (BaGrACS), University of Bamberg, Germany
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2
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Clarke LL, Hine B, England D, Flew PPMS, Alzahri R, Juriansz SN, Garcia MJBC. The gendered behaviors displayed by Disney protagonists. FRONTIERS IN SOCIOLOGY 2024; 9:1338900. [PMID: 38770351 PMCID: PMC11102966 DOI: 10.3389/fsoc.2024.1338900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Previous research suggests that the portrayal of male and female protagonists in Disney animations may be changing over time. The current study examined the portrayal of gendered behaviors displayed within some of Disney's most successful animated feature length films, including those beyond the Disney princess franchise. Extending the scope of the Disney animated films analyzed was important because both young girls and young boys report little personal interest in male characters within the Disney princess animations. This suggests that it is important to look beyond the Disney princess franchise to understand the gendered behaviors displayed by potentially influential male Disney protagonists. The current study also considered a greater number of masculine and feminine behaviors as well as some gender-neutral traits which had yet to be incorporated. A quantitative content analysis of 39 Disney protagonists from films released between 1937 and 2021 was conducted. The results revealed that male and female protagonists were statistically higher in feminine than masculine traits. Female protagonists from the earliest animations were the most feminine. However, there was no statistical difference in the gendered portrayals of females in the animations released in the 1990s and those released from 2009 to 2021 suggesting some continued stereotyping in females' profiles. Alternatively, male characters were more feminine relatively consistently across time-points. This study concludes that Disney is persistently portraying stereotyped female protagonists, and this could have implications on young females' behavioral profiles. However, the extent to which feminine traits are being celebrated when displayed by male protagonists needs to be examined, as well as the potential relationship between such messages and boys' behaviors and children's conceptualizations of gender more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy L. Clarke
- Department of Psychology, University of West London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin Hine
- Department of Psychology, University of West London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dawn England
- Department of Education, University of Birmingham, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Ritaj Alzahri
- School of Health and Education, Middlesex University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Ma. J. B. C. Garcia
- School of Health and Education, Middlesex University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
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3
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Matías R, Matud MP. Mental Symptoms, Life Satisfaction and Sexual Orientation: A Gender Analysis. J Clin Med 2023; 12:6366. [PMID: 37835010 PMCID: PMC10573610 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12196366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Research has revealed that homosexual and bisexual people are at higher risk of mental health problems than heterosexual people. However, most studies have focused on differences in disorders and have not examined the intersection of gender and sexual orientation. The main aim of this study is to investigate the relevance of sexual orientation in women's and men's mental symptoms, life satisfaction, and self-esteem. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 309 women and men who were homosexual or bisexual and 309 women and men who were heterosexual, aged between 17 and 54. All participants were assessed by four self-reports measuring mental symptoms, life satisfaction, self-esteem, masculine/instrumental and feminine/expressive traits, and traditional gender role attitudes. Results showed an interaction between sexual orientation and gender, with lesbian or bisexual women scoring higher in severe depression symptoms and lower in life satisfaction than heterosexual women. Homosexual and bisexual people scored higher than heterosexuals in somatic symptoms, social dysfunction, and in self-esteem. Women scored higher than men in somatic, anxiety, and insomnia symptoms and in feminine/expressive traits, whereas men scored higher than women in traditional gender role attitudes. We conclude that sexual orientation and gender are relevant to the mental health and well-being of people.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M. Pilar Matud
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychobiology, and Methodology, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 San Cristobal de La Laguna, Spain;
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4
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Woodhill BM, Samuels CA. 21st Century Neo-Androgyny: What Is Androgyny Anymore and Why We Should Still Care. Psychol Rep 2023; 126:2322-2344. [PMID: 35343328 DOI: 10.1177/00332941221076759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The notion of psychological androgyny as a research tool loiters on in an incapacitated state. The lack of a general theory and the belief that the biological gender differences are insignificant to non-existent has been the seeds for its de-construction. Over the decades, the testing of ideas associated with androgyny has declined. Indeed, the debates over its usefulness as a construct ended long ago. The judgment nowadays is that debating the constructs of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny as behavioral traits has been long settled, and a contemporary revisiting of androgyny is not warranted. However, from another contemporary viewpoint, if androgyny is to have any future, it needs a new theory devoid of masculinity and femininity. We present a novel theory with the potential to do just that. This article details a new de-gendered theory of psychological androgyny, neo-androgyny, as a candidate to replace traditional models that are now considered outdated and irrelevant. We present five potential factors for inclusion in a de-gendered model: social efficacy, creativity, capability, eminence, and determination. We review these factors concerning the future of androgyny theory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Curtis A Samuels
- University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA; University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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5
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Antoniucci C, Portengen C, Endendijk JJ. Like Parent, like Child: General and Specific Associations Between Parents’ and Children’s Binary Gender Identity in a Gender Egalitarian Context. SEX ROLES 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-023-01356-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThere is ample scientific evidence for the importance of parental gender socialization in children’s binary gender development. Surprisingly, little is known about the role of parents’ own gender identity in the binary gender identity development of their children. Therefore, the present study investigated the association between parents’ and children’s binary gender identity (i.e., similarity to same- and other-gender individuals) in a sample of 142 Dutch families with a child between the ages of 6 and 12 years old. The Dutch context is characterized by relatively high gender equality. Both parents and their children answered questions about their similarity to same-gender and other-gender individuals. Generalized estimating equations revealed that parents’ same-gender similarity and parents’ other-gender similarity were positively associated with their children’s same- and other-gender-similarity, respectively. In addition, more other-gender similarity in parents was associated with less same-gender similarity in girls, but more same-gender similarity in boys. Parents who reported high similarity with both genders were more likely to have children who also reported higher similarity with both genders. These findings indicate that parents’ own binary gender identity is related in general and specific ways to their children’s binary gender identity development. Parents should be made aware of their role in children’s binary gender identity development. Yet, more research on different types of gender identity in parents and their children is necessary.
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Riskind RG, Tornello SL. “I Think It’s Too Early to Know”: Gender Identity Labels and Gender Expression of Young Children With Nonbinary or Binary Transgender Parents. Front Psychol 2022; 13:916088. [PMID: 36059766 PMCID: PMC9430650 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.916088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about gender expression among children with transgender parents. In the United States, we surveyed 64 nonbinary or binary transgender parents of children aged 18 to 71 months. Most parents reported a marginalized sexual identity and a White racial identity. Many declined to label their child’s gender identity, and this was particularly true among those with younger children. Scores indicated that, on average, children’s play was conventionally gendered. However, scores indicated significantly more gender-expansive play in the present sample than in normed samples, particularly among children assigned male at birth. Findings support transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016) and illustrate differences among families with nonbinary and binary transgender parents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel G. Riskind
- Department of Psychology, Guilford College, Greensboro, NC, United States
- *Correspondence: Rachel G. Riskind,
| | - Samantha L. Tornello
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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7
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Faragó F, Savoy S, Sanchez EA, Khaleghi N, Evans L, Adams EL, Palomino E. Gender Typicality, Pressure to Conform to Gender Norms, and Anti-Fat and Appearance Stereotypes in Girls. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 51:2183-2198. [PMID: 35471679 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-021-02252-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This mixed-methods study investigated the relation among gender identity (i.e., self-perceived gender similarity to girls and boys; self-perceived parental and peer pressure to conform to gender norms) and stereotyping about weight (i.e., anti-fat stereotypes), weight change, and appearance in 83 girls ages 6-9 (Mage = 7.60 years, SD = .85; 65% White, 16% Mixed/Other, 11% Black, 8% Latina) in the U.S. Stereotypes about weight change were assessed with open-ended responses (i.e., qualitatively), and the rest of the constructs were assessed with closed-ended responses (i.e., quantitatively). There was a positive association between pressure from parents to conform to gender norms and appearance stereotypes, and between pressure from peers and negative stereotypes about the fat and thin figures. Girls who were more gender typical, or more similar to girls, were more likely to endorse appearance stereotypes. There was no significant relation among stereotypes about weight change and gender identity. Many girls deemed the fat figure as unattractive, physically restrained, unhealthy, and likely to be bullied and believed that the fat figure should change back to look like a thinner figure. Most girls were aware that exercising, eating healthy, and dietary restriction can lead to weight loss and that food consumption and lack of exercise can lead to weight gain. Findings suggest that certain aspects of weight (anti-fat) and appearance stereotypes are closely linked to gender identity in girls, whereas other aspects of weight stereotypes (e.g., stereotypes about weight change) are so pervasive that they are common in most girls, regardless of their gender identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flóra Faragó
- School of Human Sciences, Human Development and Family Studies, Stephen F. Austin State University, SFA Station, P. O. Box 13014, Nacogdoches, TX, 75962, USA.
| | - Sarah Savoy
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Emily A Sanchez
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Neusha Khaleghi
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Lauren Evans
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Emily L Adams
- Human Services and Educational Leadership, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Edgar Palomino
- Human Services and Educational Leadership, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
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8
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Tellhed U, Sollvén A, Tamas A, Hägerklint E. Boosting prosocial career aspirations: Loving-kindness meditation relates to higher communal career goals in youth. Scand J Psychol 2022; 63:334-345. [PMID: 35436348 PMCID: PMC9541400 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Wanting to help others and benefit society in one's future career are examples of communal career goals. Raising these goals in youth should increase interest in HEED‐occupations (Healthcare, Early Education, Domestic, and the Domestic fields) which are strongly gender‐skewed and face labor shortage. Research has yet to find ways to increase communal career goals. In this study, we test the novel hypothesis that after listening to a brief loving‐kindness meditation, participants will rate stronger communal career goals, as compared to controls. In three experimental studies, volunteering high‐school students (Study 1 and 3) and university students (Study 2) listened to a 12‐min recording of the meditation with the explicit purpose of investigating its effect on stress. They thereafter filled out an apparently unrelated career goal survey. We compared the results with a control group that just rated the career goals (Studies 1–3) and a control group that listened to calm music before filling out the survey (Study 2 and 3). The results showed that the high‐school students rated higher communal career goals after listening to the meditation, as compared to controls. We did not replicate the result in the sample of university students, which could relate to adults having less flexible career goals than youth, or to a ceiling effect in communal goals. This is the first study that has demonstrated a method with the potential of increasing communal career goals in youth. In addition to increasing interest in HEED, raising communal goals could benefit society, since they are intrinsically prosocial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Una Tellhed
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Annie Sollvén
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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9
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Andrews NCZ, Cook RE, Martin CL. Who am I and what do my peers think: How do gender identity and peer norms relate to other‐gender friendships. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Rachel E. Cook
- Institute for Child Development and Family Relations California State University San Bernardino California
| | - Carol Lynn Martin
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics Arizona State University Tempe Arizona USA
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10
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Baiocco R, Antoniucci C, Basili E, Pistella J, Favini A, Martin C, Pastorelli C. Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale: Validation in a Sample of Italian LGB + and Heterosexual Young Adults. SEXUALITY RESEARCH & SOCIAL POLICY : JOURNAL OF NSRC : SR & SP 2021; 19:1270-1284. [PMID: 34367357 PMCID: PMC8335452 DOI: 10.1007/s13178-021-00631-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Introduction The present article describes two interrelated studies that examine gender typicality in young adulthood using a new dual-identity approach. Methods Participants were recruited online from March 2020 to February 2021 and reported their perceived similarity to own- and other-gender peers as a way to assess their gender typicality. In study 1, the authors conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test and validate the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale in a sample of Italian young adults (n = 571; M age = 23.9; SD = 3.60). The authors documented the configural, metric, scalar measurement invariance, and validity. In study 2, the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale adopted in study 1 was used to assess the distribution of different typologies of gender typicality in another sample of Italian young adults who vary in gender and sexual orientation (n = 1126; M age = 24.3; SD = 3.51). Results Results confirmed the structural validity of the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale, revealing the two-factor structure of the scale. Moreover, results of cluster analysis found different typologies of self-perceptions of gender typicality. Conclusion Both studies emphasize the relevance of studying gender typicality in young adulthood through a dual-identity approach, highlighting the relevance of gender and sexual orientations. Policy Implications The use of the dual-identity approach has significant social and clinical implications as it represents a more flexible and representative model of the complexity of gender typicality. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13178-021-00631-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Baiocco
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Antoniucci
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuele Basili
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Jessica Pistella
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Ainzara Favini
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Carol Martin
- School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ USA
| | - Concetta Pastorelli
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Sandfort TGM, Bos HMW, Fu TC(J, Herbenick D, Dodge B. Gender Expression and Its Correlates in a Nationally Representative Sample of the U.S. Adult Population: Findings from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2021; 58:51-63. [PMID: 32970489 PMCID: PMC7749071 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2020.1818178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We explored the associations of gender expression with childhood gender expression, sexual identity, and demographic characteristics in a representative sample of the U.S. population aged 18 to 65 years (N = 1277), using data from the 2015 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior. As expected, gay men were less gender conforming than heterosexual men. However, among women, persons with a bisexual identity were less gender conforming compared to heterosexual and lesbian persons. In multivariate analyses, childhood gender expression trumped the role of sexual identity. In terms of demographic characteristics, gender conformity seemed to be more present among persons with positions with less social status in terms of age, race/ethnicity, education, income, and relationship status. Finally, we found among both men and women, that a large proportion saw themselves as more masculine or feminine than men and women on average, respectively, suggesting that accentuating one's gender conformity has a psychological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theo G. M. Sandfort
- Division of Gender, Sexuality and Health, Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Henny M. W. Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tsung-Chieh (Jane) Fu
- Center for Sexual Health Promotion, School of Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Debby Herbenick
- Center for Sexual Health Promotion, School of Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Brian Dodge
- Center for Sexual Health Promotion, School of Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
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Wen F, Zuo B, Wang Y, Wu Y, Fang Z, Ma S. The (Continuous) Nature of Perceived Gender Counter-Stereotype: A Threshold Model of Gender Stereotype Maintenance. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:2511-2530. [PMID: 32588256 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01763-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
People often expect men and women to look, act, and think like typical members of their gender groups. When men and women deviate from gender-stereotypical expectations across various domains, people tend to denigrate them, compared to those who follow stereotypical expectations. This derogatory attitude-termed the backlash effect-has been well supported by psychological research. However, previous studies on the backlash effect have often neglected the fact that men and women can be counter-stereotypical of their gender groups, to varying degrees. This research tried to address this continuous nature of counter-stereotypical characteristics in various domains using six experiments to evaluate individual responses to gendered facial cues, behaviors, and psychological traits. We conducted three studies, with two experiments per study. Most importantly, this research proposed a threshold model of gender stereotype maintenance to explain people's evaluations of gender-counter-stereotypical targets across various domains. The threshold model suggested that appraisal for a target with balanced gender-stereotypical and gender-counter-stereotypical characteristics tends to be more positive than for a target who strictly adheres to gender stereotypes or gender-counter-stereotypical characteristics. The results of all three studies supported the threshold model, which demonstrated a curvilinear pattern of participants' appraisals and targets' gender-counter-stereotypical degrees. The threshold model of stereotype maintenance has enriched the traditional stereotype maintenance theory and enlightened the development of a more effective impression management strategy. Moreover, it provided more ecological validity that treated gender counter-stereotype as a continuum rather than a binary variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Wen
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Bin Zuo
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China.
| | - Yang Wang
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Academy of Marxism, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zeming Fang
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shuhan Ma
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
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13
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Rydberg Sterner T, Gudmundsson P, Falk H, Seidu N, Ahlner F, Wetterberg H, Rydén L, Sigström R, Östling S, Zettergren A, Kern S, Waern M, Skoog I. Depression in relation to sex and gender expression among Swedish septuagenarians-Results from the H70 study. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0238701. [PMID: 32925927 PMCID: PMC7489509 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0238701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Little is known about the role of gender expression (femininity, masculinity, or androgyny) in relation to sex differences in depression. This study tested if gender expression was associated with depression and burden of depressive symptoms in a 70-year-old population. METHODS A cross-sectional population-based sample of 70-year-olds from The Gothenburg H70 Birth Cohort Study (n = 1203) was examined in 2014-16. Data were collected using psychiatric examinations and structured questionnaires, including the Positive-Negative Sex-Role Inventory to assess gender expression. Depression was diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria, and symptom burden was assessed with Montgomery Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS). RESULTS Gender expression was related to MADRS score and depression diagnosis. In fully adjusted models, feminine traits with low social desirability (FEM-) were associated with a higher MADRS score (R2 0.16; B 0.16; CI 0.1-0.2), while androgyny (t ratio) (R2 0.12; B 0.42; CI 0.1-0.7) and masculine traits with high social desirability (MAS+) (R2 0.13; B -0.06; CI -0.1--0.01) were associated with a lower MADRS score. Also, feminine traits with low social desirability (FEM-) were positively associated with depression (OR 1.04; CI 1.01-1.1). No associations between depression and masculinity or androgyny were observed in adjusted models. There were no interactions between sex and gender expression in relation to depression or MADRS score, indicating that the effects of gender expression were similar in men and women. CONCLUSIONS We found that gender expression was associated to both depression and burden of depressive symptoms. More specifically, we found that femininity was associated to higher levels of depression, irrespective of biological sex. In addition, masculinity and androgyny were associated with lower levels of depression. These results highlight the importance of taking gender expression into consideration when studying sex differences in depression among older populations in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Therese Rydberg Sterner
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Pia Gudmundsson
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Hanna Falk
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Psychiatry, Cognition and Old Age Psychiatry Clinic, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Nazib Seidu
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Felicia Ahlner
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Hanna Wetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Lina Rydén
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Robert Sigström
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Psychiatry, Cognition and Old Age Psychiatry Clinic, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Svante Östling
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Psychiatry, Cognition and Old Age Psychiatry Clinic, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Zettergren
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Silke Kern
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Psychiatry, Cognition and Old Age Psychiatry Clinic, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Margda Waern
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Psychosis Clinic, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ingmar Skoog
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Neuropsychiatric Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Centre for Ageing and Health (AGECAP) at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Psychiatry, Cognition and Old Age Psychiatry Clinic, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Matud MP, López-Curbelo M, Fortes D. Gender and Psychological Well-Being. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16193531. [PMID: 31547223 PMCID: PMC6801582 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16193531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Background: Research has consistently reported gender differences in mental health, but studies on differences in psychological well-being between women and men have not yielded conclusive results. The aim of this study was to examine the relevance of gender to the psychological well-being of adult individuals. A cross-sectional study with a sample of 1700 men and 1700 women from the general Spanish population was conducted. Their ages ranged from 21 to 64 years, and they were assessed with Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scales and the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Results: Men scored higher than women in self-acceptance and autonomy, and women scored higher than men in personal growth and positive relations with others. The most relevant variable in the psychological well-being of both women and men was high masculinity. Other relevant variables in women’s well-being were high femininity, not having a manual occupation, not being homemakers, and professional occupation. Men´s well-being also was higher in professional men and in men with a skilled non-manual occupation, men with high femininity and men who were not single, divorced or widowed. Conclusions: Adherence to traditional gender roles is relevant to the psychological well-being of women and men, and women and men whose self-concept includes both masculine-instrumental and feminine-expressive characteristics have greater well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Pilar Matud
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology, Universidad de La Laguna, 38207 La Laguna, Spain.
| | - Marisela López-Curbelo
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology, Universidad de La Laguna, 38207 La Laguna, Spain.
| | - Demelza Fortes
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology, Universidad de La Laguna, 38207 La Laguna, Spain.
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Lo IPY, Kim YK, Small E, Chan CHY. The Gendered Self of Chinese Lesbians: Self-Esteem as a Mediator Between Gender Roles and Depression. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2019; 48:1543-1554. [PMID: 31123949 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-019-1402-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Sexual minority women are at an elevated risk for depression compared to heterosexual women, yet less is known about how gender roles affect the mental health of sexual minority women. Existing studies examining the role of self-esteem in the relationship between gender roles and depression are scarce and have predominantly focused on heterosexual populations. Using a cross-sectional survey of Chinese lesbians in Hong Kong (N = 438), the study tested the direct and indirect effects of different types of gender roles (masculine, feminine, and androgynous) on depression through the mediating factor of self-esteem. We found that masculinity and androgyny were positively associated with self-esteem, while femininity was negatively associated with self-esteem. More importantly, self-esteem fully mediated the inverse relationship between masculinity and depression and that between androgyny and depression. The positive relationship between femininity and depression was also fully mediated by self-esteem. By examining different types of gender roles and incorporating gender roles, self-esteem, and depression into a unified framework, the research highlighted the particularly protective effect of androgyny, which had the strongest positive direct effect on self-esteem and indirect effect on depression through the mediation of self-esteem compared to the effects of other types of gender roles. Our results illuminate the importance of understanding how individual differences in gender roles relate to the mental health of sexual minority women in future research and interventions. Implications for interventions that help Chinese lesbians cope with gender expectations and improve their mental health are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Po Yee Lo
- Department of Sociology, University of Oxford, Manor Road, Oxford, OX1 3UQ, UK
| | - Youn Kyoung Kim
- School of Social Work, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Eusebius Small
- School of Social Work, University of Texas, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Celia Hoi Yan Chan
- Department of Social Work and Social Administration, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong S. A. R., China.
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Endendijk JJ, Andrews NCZ, England DE, Martin CL. Gender-identity typologies are related to gender-typing, friendships, and social-emotional adjustment in Dutch emerging adults. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0165025418820686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The current study examined emerging adults’ gender identity and its link with several gender-related and social outcomes, by using a novel dual-identity approach that was originally developed in children. Dutch emerging adults between 18 and 25 years old ( N = 318, Mage = 21.73, SD = 2.02; 51% female) indicated their similarity to the own-gender group and the other-gender group to assess gender identity. They completed questionnaires assessing gender-typed behavior (internalized sexualization, toughness, emotional stoicism) and attitudes (i.e., sexism); friendship efficacy and ability; and social-emotional adjustment. Cluster analysis on the gender-identity items revealed four gender-identity types: (a) feeling similar to one’s own gender, but not to the other gender (Own-GS); (b) feeling similar to both one’s own and the other gender (Both-GS); (c) feeling dissimilar to one’s own gender (Low-Own-GS); and (d) feeling similar to neither gender (Low-GS). Own-GS and Low-GS adults were most gender-typed in their behavior and showed sexist attitudes. Both-GS adults felt efficacious and were highly able to relate to both genders, whereas the other groups felt efficacious and were able to relate to only one gender (Own-GS, Low-Own-GS), or to neither gender (Low-GS). Low-Own-GS and Low-GS were least well-adjusted social-emotionally. Findings suggest that identifying with one’s own gender is helpful for certain aspects of social-emotional adjustment but that also identifying with the other gender provides the advantage of flexible social and interpersonal skills and egalitarian gender attitudes.
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Andrews NCZ, Martin CL, Cook RE, Field RD, England DE. Exploring dual gender typicality among young adults in the United States. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0165025418811125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in young adulthood by applying the dual-identity approach to gender typicality, previously developed with children, to a university sample. Participants ( n = 215, Mage = 20.20 years; 62% female) were asked to rate their perceived similarity to both own- and other-gender peers. They also completed questionnaires assessing sexist attitudes, internalized sexualization (females), adherence to male-typed behaviors in the context of interpersonal relationships (males; adherence to physical toughness and restrictive emotional expressivity), gender-based relationship efficacy, friendships, self-esteem, social self-efficacy, and social anxiety. Results indicated that self-perceived gender typicality involves comparisons to both gender groups, and that meaningful typologies can be created based on similarity to own- and other-gender groups. As with children, results indicated that identifying with one’s own gender was advantageous in terms of low social anxiety and relationships with own-gender peers. For adults who identified with both own- and other-gender peers, we identified additional social benefits (i.e., efficacy and friendships with other-gender peers). Further, we identified a downside to own-gender typicality: individuals who identified only with their own gender had more sexist attitudes than those who identified with the other gender. Findings support the viability of the dual-identity approach in young adults, and have implications for researchers assessing gender typicality across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi C. Z. Andrews
- Early Intervention Department, Mothercraft, Canada
- LaMarsh Centre for Child and Youth Research, York University, Canada
| | - Carol Lynn Martin
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, United States of America
| | - Rachel E. Cook
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, United States of America
| | - Ryan D. Field
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, United States of America
| | - Dawn E. England
- Education and Early Childhood Studies, Middlesex University Dubai, United Arab Emirates
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Geldenhuys M, Bosch A, Jeewa S, Koutris I. Gender traits in relation to work versus career salience. SA JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Orientation: The concepts of work- and career-role salience are used interchangeably, yet work focuses on the short-term aspect and career on the long-term aspect.Research purpose: We utilised gender traits, that is, masculinity, femininity and psychological androgyny, to find greater nuances in the salience of work versus career roles. We also set out to confirm the adapted factor structure of the revised Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI).Motivation for the study: Generally, self-reported sex is used to determine differences in role salience between men and women, as opposed to considering the gender roles people associate with.Research approach/design and method: A sample of 395 South African employees was used. Structural equation modelling and t-tests were applied.Main findings: We confirmed work- and career-role salience as distinct constructs. The factor structure of the revised BSRI holds for this study. With regard to gender traits, femininity decreased work-role salience, while psychological androgyny increased work-role salience. Masculinity had a direct effect on work-role salience while indirectly influencing career-role salience through work-role salience. Women were found to be significantly more feminine and psychologically androgynous than men.Practical/managerial implications: Utilising gender traits may have greater career guidance relevance for individuals than traditional approaches utilising differences between the sexes.Contribution/value-add: This study confirmed that work and career roles are to be viewed as separate constructs and that people may view the importance placed on work- and career-role salience differently. The study further contributes by including gender traits as a significant contributor to role salience.
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Geldenhuys M, Bosch A. A Rasch Adapted Version of the 30-Item Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). J Pers Assess 2019; 102:428-439. [PMID: 30638408 DOI: 10.1080/00223891.2018.1527343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
As a foundational instrument in the measurement of gender, the study investigated the psychometric properties of the item scores on the 30-item Bem Sex Roles Inventory (BSRI) to address concerns raised in previous studies and to determine possible differential item functioning (DIF) by applying a Rasch measurement model on a multicultural South African sample. A quantitative cross-sectional research design with 55.3% women and 44.4% men was used. Overall, we found support for the reliability and validity of BSRI item scores, consistent with findings in North American and European contexts. The results supported the use of a 6-point response format as opposed to the original 7-point response format. The items "aggressive" (masculinity) and "loves children" (femininity) were removed. The Neutral dimension fit the data well. No DIF for the groupings of man/woman, race, and language (the latter 2 as measures of culture) were found. This study makes contributions by applying a Rasch measurement model to the BSRI, scores which have previously only been validated through classical test theory and often excludes the validation of the neutral dimension scores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madelyn Geldenhuys
- Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Anita Bosch
- University of Stellenbosch Business School, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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Dzubinski LM, Diehl AB. The Problem of Gender Essentialism and its Implications for Women in Leadership. JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jls.21565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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The Influence of Peers During Adolescence: Does Homophobic Name Calling by Peers Change Gender Identity? J Youth Adolesc 2017; 47:636-649. [PMID: 29032442 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-017-0749-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Adolescents actively evaluate their identities during adolescence, and one of the most salient and central identities for youth concerns their gender identity. Experiences with peers may inform gender identity. Unfortunately, many youth experience homophobic name calling, a form of peer victimization, and it is unknown whether youth internalize these peer messages and how these messages might influence gender identity. The goal of the present study was to assess the role of homophobic name calling on changes over the course of an academic year in adolescents' gender identity. Specifically, this study extends the literature using a new conceptualization and measure of gender identity that involves assessing how similar adolescents feel to both their own- and other-gender peers and, by employing longitudinal social network analyses, provides a rigorous analytic assessment of the impact of homophobic name calling on changes in these two dimensions of gender identity. Symbolic interaction perspectives-the "looking glass self"-suggest that peer feedback is incorporated into the self-concept. The current study tests this hypothesis by determining if adolescents respond to homophobic name calling by revising their self-view, specifically, how the self is viewed in relation to both gender groups. Participants were 299 6th grade students (53% female). Participants reported peer relationships, experiences of homophobic name calling, and gender identity (i.e., similarity to own- and other-gender peers). Longitudinal social network analyses revealed that homophobic name calling early in the school year predicted changes in gender identity over time. The results support the "looking glass self" hypothesis: experiencing homophobic name calling predicted identifying significantly less with own-gender peers and marginally more with other-gender peers over the course of an academic year. The effects held after controlling for participant characteristics (e.g., gender), social network features (e.g., norms), and peer experiences (e.g., friend influence, general victimization). Homophobic name calling emerged as a form of peer influence that changed early adolescent gender identity, such that adolescents in this study appear to have internalized the messages they received from peers and incorporated these messages into their personal views of their own gender identity.
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Leaper C. Further Reflections on Sandra Lipsitz Bem’s Impact. SEX ROLES 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0760-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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