Parents' Judgments about the Desirability of Toys for Their Children: Associations with Gender Role Attitudes, Gender-typing of Toys, and Demographics

Parent-child interaction frequency: associations with age, sibling presence, and child health

OBJECTIVES

Parent-child interaction plays a crucial role in child development. This study investigated associations between the frequency of parent-child-interactions and sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, socio-economic status, family structure, number and age of siblings), physical and psychological symptoms in children, and mental health of parents.

METHODS

The frequencies of 11 different parent-child interactions (shared reading, singing, moving, painting, building, puzzle, playing ball, role games, language games, number games and talking about problems) were assessed in 739 children aged 2-6.5 years-old using a standardised parental questionnaire, within a population-based cohort study in Leipzig, Germany. Physical and psychological symptoms were investigated using the HBSC Symptom-Checklist and parental depression symptoms using the Patient Health Questionnaire. We applied regression analyses to assess associations between variables.

RESULTS

Shared reading was the parent-child interaction reported most frequently, with an average occurrence of several times a week. Number games were reported least frequently, with an average occurrency of every two weeks. Fewer parent-child interactions were significantly associated with higher child age, higher number of siblings, presence of older siblings and a lower level of physical and psychological symptoms. The other variables (sex, SES, living situation, presence of younger siblings or both (younger and older), depression symptoms of parents) were not significantly associated with the frequency of parent-child interactions.

CONCLUSION

The findings show that age of children and number as well as age of siblings at home may shape the frequency of parent-child interaction in preschool children. In addition, the findings suggest that parent-child interaction might be related to the health of children rather than the (mental) health of parents.

IMPACT

This study assessed the associations between the frequency of different types of parent-child interactions and sociodemographic as well as health-related parameters in a large sample of children. There still exist sex-specific differences in the frequency of parent-child interactions related to traditional role models of girls and boys. A higher frequency of parent-child interactions is associated with more physical and psychological symptoms in children. Parent-child interactions are less frequent in families with more children, especially when older siblings are present.

Mothers' and fathers' neural responses toward gender-stereotype violations by their own children

Gender stereotypes facilitate people's processing of social information by providing assumptions about expected behaviors and preferences. When gendered expectations are violated, people often respond negatively, both on a behavioral and neural level. Little is known about the impact of family kinship on the behavioral and neural reactions to gender-stereotype violations. Therefore, we examined whether parents show different responses when gender stereotypes are violated by their own children vs unknown children. The sample comprised 74 Dutch families with a father (Mage = 37.54), mother (Mage = 35.83), son, and daughter aged 3-6 years. Electroencephalography measurements were obtained while parents viewed pictures of their own and unknown children paired with toy or problem behavior words that violated or confirmed gender stereotypes. In half of the trials, parents evaluated the appropriateness of toy-gender and behavior-gender combinations. Parents showed stronger late positive potential amplitudes toward gender stereotype-violating behaviors by own children compared to unknown children. Moreover, parents' P1 responses toward gender stereotype-violating child behaviors were stronger for boys than for girls and for parents who evaluated gender-stereotype violations as less appropriate than gender-stereotype confirmations. These findings indicated that gender-stereotype violations by parents' own children are particularly salient and viewed as less appropriate than gender-stereotype confirmations.

The Intergenerational Transmission of Gender Roles: Evidence From Parents and Children in Single-Parent

Given the current increases in the divorce rate and the number of single-parent families, the development of gender roles among children from single-parent families has received more and more attention. This study investigated how single parents influenced the formation of their children's gender roles and family-related factors that benefited the development of gender roles in single-parent children. Through in-depth interviews with 24 pairs of parents and children from single-parent families, we investigated single parents' and their children's cognition on gender roles, parents' parenting attitudes and behaviors during their children's gender role development, and communication and interaction between parents and children. Results showed intergenerational consistency in the gender role concepts of parents and their children in single-parent families. However, the children's gender role concepts were not completely and directly inherited from their parents, and could be affected by their subjective initiative. Additionally, single parenting did not necessarily negatively impact children's gender role development, which depends on their parent's parenting style. The study's limitations are discussed, and future directions for in-depth research are suggested.

An exploration of parent perceptions of a take-home loose parts play kit intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic

The restrictions introduced in response to the COVID-19 pandemic affected the regular routines of Canadians, including access to play and physical activity opportunities, while limiting social connections. In response to this, a recreation centre created take-home play kits that contained loose parts with the aim of facilitating unstructured play. Between August 2021 and January 2022, ten parents participated in semi-structured interviews via telephone or videoconferencing platforms that captured their experiences of the take-home play kits. Using Thematic Analysis, we identified themes and subthemes reflecting parent perceptions and experiences of the take-home play kit. Three themes emerged: (1 A forced renaissance of play; (2) Bringing unstructured play home, and; (3) Parenting is child's play. Parents shared how the pandemic resulted in decreased physical activity and social opportunities for their children. The parents described how the take-home play kits supported unstructured play as well as their perspectives on the importance of unstructured play. Parents in our study suggested that a take-home loose parts play kit could be a useful resource to help engage children in unstructured play in both indoor and outdoor environments.

Prenatal exposure to phthalates and gender-specific play behavior at seven years of age in the SELMA study

BACKGROUND

A growing body of evidence shows that prenatal exposure to phthalates affects child development. Since many phthalates have been shown to alter endocrine signaling, they may influence reproductive development, neurodevelopment, and child behavior. Indeed, a few studies reported associations between prenatal phthalate exposure and gender-specific play behavior. However, evidence for this relationship is limited, and previous findings are based on single phthalates, while human exposure entails mixtures of chemicals.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the associations between prenatal exposure to single phthalates, as well as a phthalate mixture, and gender-specific play behavior.

METHODS

A total of 715 mother-child pairs from the Swedish Environmental Longitudinal, Mother and Child, Asthma and Allergy (SELMA) study were included. In the median week 10 of pregnancy, phthalate metabolites were measured in urine. Gender-specific play behavior was measured with Preschool Activities Inventory at the age of seven years. Linear and weighted quantile sum regressions were used; data was stratified by sex. Models were adjusted for child and maternal age, maternal education, parental attitudes toward play behavior, and urinary creatinine concentration.

RESULTS

For boys, single compound analyses revealed negative associations of prenatal exposure to di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) concentrations with masculine (β = -1.44; 95% CI = -2.72, -0.16) and composite (β = -1.43; 95% CI = -2.72, -0.13) scores. Suggestive associations were also observed with a mixture approach identifying DINP as the main contributor of the association of decreased masculine play. Among girls, higher urinary concentrations of 2,4-methyl-7-oxyooctyl-oxycarbonyl-cyclohexane carboxylic acid (MOiNCH) was associated with decreased feminine (β = -1.59; 95% CI = -2.62, -0.57) and masculine scores (β = -1.22; 95% CI = -2.14, -0.29), whereas the mixture analyses did not yield conclusive results for girls.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest associations of prenatal exposure to DINP with decreased masculine play behavior in boys while the results for girls were not fully conclusive.

Boys Round Here: The Relationship Between Masculine Honor Ideology, Aggressive Behavior, Race, and Regional Affiliation

Masculine honor ideology (MHI) refers to a set of beliefs that dictate men must respond aggressively to threat or insult to maintain their ideal masculine reputation. The current study demonstrates the robust relationship between MHI and lifetime aggression outcomes in a national sample of men from the United States. It also details the regional prevalence of MHI and compares these rates across races and regions of the country. Participants included 896 adult United States men (M_age = 35.86, SD = 1.22) recruited on Amazon's Mechanical Turk. It was expected that the odds of endorsing past aggressive behavior and lifetime maladjustment would be increased by stronger adherence to MHI. This hypothesis was supported, and individuals who reported greater MHI adherence also had higher rates of lifetime aggression and maladjustment. Contrary to expectations, White, non-Hispanic men endorsed lower rates of MHI than did other men. Black men adhered more strongly to MHI than White and Hispanic men. It was also expected that men in the Southern and Western United States would endorse greater MHI in comparison to men in the Northeast United States. The hypothesis was only partially supported for White, non-Hispanic men, and it was associated with participant birthplace and their father's birthplace. There were no regional differences in MHI adherence related to the participants' mother's birthplace or where participants lived at survey completion. These findings suggest that MHI may spread more uniformly than prior research suggests and that MHI may have more nuanced cultural considerations that deserve continued empirical investigation.

Androgens and child behavior: Color and toy preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

Human males and females show average gender/sex differences for certain psychological phenomena. Multiple factors may contribute to these differences, including sex chromosomes, exposure to gonadal hormones, and socialization or learning. This study investigated potential hormonal and socialization/learning influences on gender/sex differences in childhood preferences for color, specifically pink and red vs. blues, and for toys. Children (aged 4 to 11 years) with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH, n = 43 girls and 37 boys), marked by elevated prenatal adrenal androgen exposure, and without CAH (n = 41 girls and 31 boys) were studied. Prior research indicates girls with CAH are masculinized for certain behaviors, such as toy choices, while boys with CAH generally do not differ from boys without CAH. In the current study, children indicated preferences for stereotyped hues of pink vs. blue as well as two control color pairs. They also indicated their preference between gender/sex-typed toys (doll vs. car) presented in black and white, in gender/sex-congruent colors (pink doll vs. blue car) and in gender/sex-incongruent colors (pink car vs. blue doll). Color findings: Control girls preferred stereotyped pink over blue more than boys or girls with CAH did; the latter two groups did not differ in their color preferences. No preference differences occurred for other color pairs. Toy findings: In black/white or gender/sex-congruent colors, boys preferred the car more than control girls or girls with CAH did, while girls with CAH preferred the car more than control girls did. In gender/sex-incongruent colors (pink car vs. blue doll), boys still preferred the car, while girls with CAH showed reduced and control girls showed increased preferences for the pink car compared to the car preferences in black/white. Results support learning theories of color preferences, perhaps also influenced by pre-existing toy preferences which may occur for other reasons, including early androgen exposure. Specifically, girls with CAH may have learned they do not enjoy stereotypical toys for girls, often colored pink, and pink coloring may subsequently diminish their preference for a car. Our results highlight the importance of gonadal hormones and learning in the development of childhood toy and color preferences.

How the home learning environment contributes to children's social-emotional competence: A moderated mediation model

Introduction

The home learning environment is the earliest contact learning environment in early childhood development, which plays an important role in the development of children's social-emotional competence. However, previous studies have not clarified the precise mechanisms by which the home learning environment influences children's social-emotional competence. Therefore, the purpose of the study is to explore the relationship between the home learning environment and its intrinsic structure (i.e. structural family characteristics, parental beliefs and interests, and the educational processes) and children's social-emotional competence, and whether gender plays a moderating role in the relationship.

Method

The study randomly selected a sample of 443 children from 14 kindergartens in western China. The Home Learning Environment Questionnaire and the Chinese Inventory of Children's Social-emotional competence scale were used to investigate the home learning environment and social-emotional competence of these children.

Results

(1) Structural family characteristics and parental beliefs and interests both had a significant positive predictive effect on children's social-emotional competence. (2) The educational processes fully mediate between structural family characteristics, parental beliefs and interests, and children's social-emotional competence. (3) Gender moderated the effect of the home learning environment on children's social-emotional competence. Gender moderates not only the indirect effects between parental beliefs and interests and children's social-emotional competence, but also the indirect effects between structural family characteristics and children's social-emotional competence. At the same time, gender also moderated the direct effects between parental beliefs and interests and children's social-emotional competence.

Discussion

The results emphasize the crucial role of the home learning environment in the development of children's early social-emotional competence. Therefore, parents should pay attention to the home learning environment and improve their ability to create a home learning environment that promotes the positive development of children's social-emotional competence.

Hunter-Gatherer Children's Object Play and Tool Use: An Ethnohistorical Analysis

Learning to use, make, and modify tools is key to our species' success. Researchers have hypothesized that play with objects may have a foundational role in the ontogeny of tool use and, over evolutionary timescales, in cumulative technological innovation. Yet, there are few systematic studies investigating children's interactions with objects outside the post-industrialized West. Here, we survey the ethnohistorical record to uncover cross-cultural trends regarding hunter-gatherer children's use of objects during play and instrumental activities. Our dataset, consisting of 434 observations of children's toys and tools from 54 hunter-gatherer societies, reveals several salient trends: Most objects in our dataset are used in play. Children readily manufacture their own toys, such as dolls and shelters. Most of the objects that children interact with are constructed from multiple materials. Most of the objects in our dataset are full-sized or miniature versions of adult tools, reflecting learning for adult roles. Children also engage with objects related to child culture, primarily during play. Taken together, our findings show that hunter-gatherer children grow up playing, making, and learning with objects.

Girls' Stuff? Maternal Gender Stereotypes and Their Daughters' Fear

One of the most robust findings in psychopathology is the fact that specific phobias are more prevalent in women than in men. Although there are several theoretical accounts for biological and social contributions to this gender difference, empirical data are surprisingly limited. Interestingly, there is evidence that individuals with stereotypical feminine characteristics are more fearful than those with stereotypical masculine characteristics; this is beyond biological sex. Because gender role stereotypes are reinforced by parental behavior, we aimed to examine the relationship of maternal gender stereotypes and children's fear. Dyads of 38 mothers and their daughters (between ages 6 and 10) were included. We assessed maternal implicit and explicit gender stereotypes as well as their daughters' self-reported general fearfulness, specific fear of snakes, and approach behavior toward a living snake. First, mothers' fear of snakes significantly correlated with their daughters' fear of snakes. Second, mothers' gender stereotypes significantly correlated with their daughters' self-reported fear. Specifically, maternal implicit gender stereotypes were associated with daughters' fear of snakes and fear ratings in response to the snake. Moreover, in children, self-reported fear correlated with avoidance of the fear-relevant animal. Together, these results provide first evidence for a potential role of parental gender stereotypes in the development and maintenance of fear in their offspring.

Welcome to a Pink and Blue World! An Analysis of Gender-Typed Content in Birth Announcement Cards From 1940–2019 in the Netherlands

There is a longstanding tradition in the Netherlands to announce the birth of a child by sending out birth announcement cards to friends and family. These cards provide a glimpse of the ‘zeitgeist’ over the years regarding gender through the way in which the birth of a son or a daughter is announced. The current study examined the gender-typed content of birth announcement cards from 1940 until 2019. To this end, 4669 birth announcement cards were coded based on the following categories: gender of baby, use of color, different types of images, and different types of text. Logistic regression analyses revealed that boy cards were more likely than girl cards to include blue as the dominant color, masculine descriptions of the baby, and parental expressions of pride. Girl cards were more likely than boy cards to include pink as the dominant color and images of flowers. Over time there was a decrease in the inclusion of masculine descriptions on boy cards, as well as the likelihood that fathers were mentioned before mothers. However, the expression of pride on boy cards increased over time. Overall, the amount of gender-typed content in birth announcement cards was minimal. Birth announcement cards which included gender-typed content tended to reflect gender stereotypes and different expressions for boys and girls in subtle ways that continue to reinforce gender stereotypes.

When Parents Go Shopping: Perspectives on Gender-Typed Toys among Polish Mothers and Fathers from Big Cities

Children learn to understand gender categories and roles typical for women and men from the earliest stages of their life. Toys, by which they are surrounded in everyday routine, may have a significant role in their knowledge of cultural norms and societal expectations, but also might have a great impact on children’s health in the context of psychosocial development. Parental attitudes can also be an important moderator of the choice of gender-stereotyped toys. The aim of the study was to investigate parents’ perspectives on toys’ appropriateness for children according to gender, and to analyze parents’ knowledge about the labeling of toys in shops. In total, 526 parents from big cities participated in the study; to assess parental knowledge and perspectives on toys’ categorization, The World of Toys questionnaire was used. The results indicated that most parents from big cities observe that toys are arranged according to the child’s age and sex and the toys’ functionality. Moreover, in parents’ opinion, the compliance with the role of a woman or man affects categorization the most. Furthermore, both parents tended to attribute toys to both sexes more often than they believe the stores do. To conclude, despite the still visible division of toys in shops, Polish parents from big cities are more liberal and egalitarian than shops are when it comes to the perception of toys’ appropriateness, allowing children to play with most toys regardless of their sex.

The gender-binary cycle: the perpetual relations between a biological-essentialist view of gender, gender ideology, and gender-labelling and sorting

Gender inequality is one of the most pressing issues of our time. A core factor that feeds gender inequality is people's gender ideology-a set of beliefs about the proper order of society in terms of the roles women and men should fill. We argue that gender ideology is shaped, in large parts, by the way people make sense of gender differences. Specifically, people often think of gender differences as expressions of a predetermined biology, and of men and women as different 'kinds'. We describe work suggesting that thinking of gender differences in this biological-essentialist way perpetuates a non-egalitarian gender ideology. We then review research that refutes the hypothesis that men and women are different 'kinds' in terms of brain function, hormone levels and personality characteristics. Next, we describe how the organization of the environment in a gender-binary manner, together with cognitive processes of categorization drive a biological-essentialist view of gender differences. We then describe the self-perpetuating relations, which we term the gender-binary cycle, between a biological-essentialist view of gender differences, a non-egalitarian gender ideology and a binary organization of the environment along gender lines. Finally, we consider means of intervention at different points in this cycle. This article is part of the theme issue 'The political brain: neurocognitive and computational mechanisms'.

Gender Differences in Digital Learning During COVID-19: Competence Beliefs, Intrinsic Value, Learning Engagement, and Perceived Teacher Support

The spread of the COVID-19 pandemic quickly necessitated digital learning, which bore challenges for all pupils but especially for groups disadvantaged in a virtual classroom. As some studies indicate persistent differences between boys and girls in use of technologies and related skills, the aim of this study was to investigate gender differences in the digital learning environment students faced in spring 2020. Previous studies investigating gender differences in digital learning largely used biological sex as the only indicator of gender. This study includes both biological sex and gender role self-concept in order to investigate the role of gender in different components of this stereotyped domain in a more differentiated way. A total of 19,190 Austrian secondary school students (61.9% girls, M_age = 14.55, SD_age = 2.49, age range 10–21) participated in an online study in April 2020 and answered questions regarding their competence beliefs, intrinsic value, engagement, and perceived teacher support in digital learning during the pandemic-induced school closures. Results showed higher perceived teacher support, intrinsic value, and learning engagement among girls than boys, while no significant sex differences were found in competence beliefs regarding digital learning. Furthermore, our results indicated clear benefits of an androgynous gender role self-concept for all studied components of digital learning. Implications of the findings for theory and practice are discussed.

Looking deeper into the toy box: Understanding caregiver toy selection decisions

Children's caregivers are their first play partners, and toys influence the quality of these caregiver-child interactions-with research suggesting that electronic toys are not as supportive of these interactions as traditional toys. In this study, we investigate (1) toy use amongst caregivers and infants, with an eye towards investigating the prevalence of traditional vs. electronic toys, (2) caregivers' preferences when selecting electronic or traditional toys for their children and (3) whether caregivers' choices are impacted by the claims made by toy manufacturers. Sixty-three primary caregivers participated in a survey asking about their toy selection decisions. Results demonstrate the prevalence of electronic toys (even for the youngest infants) as well as caregivers' preferences and the potential of toy descriptions to impact caregivers' toy purchasing decisions. Despite scientific evidence that there may be a developmental cost to electronic toys relative to traditional toys, after highlighting the toys' developmental benefits, caregivers became more likely to select electronic toys for their infant.

Associations between prenatal phthalate exposure and sex-typed play behavior in preschool age boys and girls

Phthalates, a class of chemicals found widely in consumer products including plastic toys, food contaminants and food packaging, personal care products, cosmetics, air fresheners, and some medications, have been shown to be anti-androgenic in numerous laboratory and epidemiological studies. In a prior cohort enrolled in 2000-2002, we observed associations between prenatal urinary concentrations of di-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) metabolites and less male-typed play behavior in preschool age boys. The aim of this study was to examine phthalate exposure in pregnancy in relation to play behavior at age 4 years in a larger cohort of pregnant women enrolled in The Infant Development and the Environment Study (TIDES) between 2010 and 2012 at four study sites (Minneapolis, MN; Rochester, NY; San Francisco, CA; Seattle, WA). Maternal urinary metabolites of DEHP, DiBP, DnBP, BBzP, and DEP were measured during the first (n=498) and third trimester (n=468) and mothers completed the Preschool Activities Inventory (PSAI), a validated maternal questionnaire designed to assess child toy preference and sex-typed play behavior when children were 4-5 years of age. After adjusting for child age, maternal education, race, urine dilution, parental attitudes about opposite sex-typed play behavior, and presence of a same sex older sibling, we observed associations between first trimester (mean 10.7±2.1 weeks gestation) (log10) SpG-adjusted MnBP, MiBP, and MBzP and lower masculine scores in boys (β-coefficient [95% confidence intervals]: MnBP -2.18, [-4.16, -0.20]), MiBP -2.1[-4.3,0.1], and MBzP -2.42 [-4.12, -0.71]). In girls, first trimester maternal urinary MBzP was associated with lower masculine scores (-2.12 [-3.98,-0.25]), while third trimester (mean 32.8±3.0 weeks gestation) maternal urinary MiBP was associated with higher masculine scores (2.69 [0.68,4.70]). Third trimester maternal urinary phthalate levels were not associated with play behavior in boys. These findings in boys are largely consistent with previous studies that report that prenatal phthalate exposure is associated with less masculine play behavior. No associations in girls have been previously reported.

Factors affecting infant toy preferences: Age, gender, experience, motor development, and parental attitude

In contrast to the anecdotal claim that "male infants like cars and female infants like dolls," previous studies have reported mixed findings for gender-related toy preferences in infancy. In Experiment 1, we explored the emergence of gender-related preferences using face-car pairs (Experiment 1a, n = 51, 6-20 months) or face-stove pairs (Experiment 1b, n = 54, 6-20 months). In Experiment 2 (n = 42, 14-16 months), we explore the effect of toy properties, infants' past toy exposure, activity levels, and parental attitudes on such preferences using a wider range of toys. For both studies, infants demonstrated a general preference for faced stimuli over other objects, except for male infants who showed no preference between dolls and cars at around 15 months. Infants' prior experience participating in motor-intensive activities, with wheeled toys and parental attitudes appeared to relate to female infants' preferences for dynamic toys. These results indicate a range of factors influence gendered toy preferences and suggest that nurture plays an important role.

Children's and parents' looking preferences to gender-typed objects: Evidence from eye tracking

Differences between children's and parents' implicit and explicit gender stereotypes were investigated in two experiments. For the first time, the visual world paradigm compared parents' and 7-8-year-old children's looking preferences toward masculine- and feminine-typed objects stereotypically associated with a story character's gender. In Experiment 1 participants listened to sentences that included a verb that inferred intentional action with an object (e.g., "Lilly/Alexander will play with the toy"), and in Experiment 2 the verb was replaced with a neutral verb (e.g., "Lilly/Alexander will trip over the toy"). A questionnaire assessed participants' explicit gender stereotype endorsement (and knowledge [Experiment 2]) of children's toys. Results revealed that parents and children displayed similar implicit stereotypes, but different explicit stereotypes, to one another. In Experiment 1, both children and parents displayed looking preferences toward the masculine-typed object when the story character was male and looking preferences toward the feminine-typed object when the character was female. No gender effects were found with a neutral verb in Experiment 2, reinforcing the impact of gender stereotypes on implicit processing and showing that the effects are not simply driven by gender stereotypic name-object associations. In the explicit measure, parents did not endorse the gender stereotypes related to toys but rather appeared to be egalitarian, whereas children's responses were gender stereotypic.

Toy Buying Today: Considerations, Information Seeking, and Thoughts about Manufacturer Suggested Age

Children frequently play with toys purchased by their parents, yet little is known about the how these toys are selected by parents. Mothers with children from 0-12 years of age filled out a survey about their toy purchasing habits. Results revealed that the most common place mothers sought out information about toys was online, and mothers most frequently found the manufacturers' suggested age only somewhat accurate. Further analyses demonstrated that mothers who bought their toys from different sources (i.e., online, stores, secondhand) considered dissimilar items before purchasing a toy for their child and obtained information in distinct ways. In contrast, regardless of where mothers purchased toys, they regarded the manufacturers' suggested age in the same way. This study is one of the few to examine parental toy selection patterns, providing useful knowledge for understanding how to reach parents and provide them information they desire when selecting toys for their children.

Gender Development in Children with Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Parents: Associations with Family Type and Child Gender

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether the gender development of 120 Italian children (40 born to gay fathers [GFs] through surrogacy, 40 born to lesbian mothers [LMs] through sperm donation, and 40 born to heterosexual parents [HPs] through sexual intercourse) aged 3 to 9 years differed as a function of family type and/or child gender.

METHODS

Children took part in observed free-play sessions while primary caregivers and nonparent caregivers were administered standardized interviews. Hierarchical linear modeling, analysis of covariance, simple effects analysis, and bootstrapping were conducted.

RESULTS

Boys and girls of GFs and HPs were reported to show less gender flexibility in their activities and characteristics than boys and girls of LMs. They also received higher scores of gender conforming dress-up play and spent more time playing with gender-conforming toys. In all family types, boys and girls were reported to show low levels of gender-nonconforming dress-up play and observed to spend less time playing with gender-nonconforming toys. Overall, comparisons within genders indicated that boys and girls of GFs and HPs were considered more masculine and feminine, respectively, in their behavior and play, relative to boys and girls in LM families. Age was not a significant covariate in any analysis.

CONCLUSION

Our findings do not support the idea that children of gay or lesbian parents show greater gender nonconformity relative to children of HPs. The findings are informative to those concerned with the effects of the absence of a male or female live-in parent on child gender development.

Parents' Autistic Personality Traits and Sex-Biased Family Ratio Determine the Amount of Technical Toy Choice

We investigated the effect of parents' autism quotient (AQ), their sex and the sex of their children on their toy preference. In a computerized forced-choice shopping task, adults selected from cuddly and social role-playing toys (social toys), academic, music and sports toys (educational toys) and construction sets as well as cars (technical toys). A sex-balanced high and low AQ sample of 160 adults consisted of groups of parents of sons only, daughters only, sons and daughters, as well as of a group of adults without children (non-parents). The standard toy preference was social toys < educational toys < technical toys. Low AQ women were the only group to make a significantly higher amount of educational and a lower amount of technical toy choices. The mere presence of just sons increased technical toy choice in this experiment, while the mere presence of just daughters reduced technical toy choice both in men and high AQ individuals.

Benevolent and Hostile Sexism in Social Spheres: The Impact of Parents, School and Romance on Belgian Adolescents' Sexist Attitudes

Despite growing public awareness and policy efforts, gender equality has not yet been fully established in Western societies. Previous research has shown that hostile and benevolent sexist attitudes, which are grounded in traditional gender stereotypes, play a key role in the reproduction of gender inequalities. Whereas, hostile and benevolent sexism among adolescents has been previously studied, limited attention has been paid to social characteristics in understanding the support for these attitudes. In this article, we aim to study how the family, the school and romantic partnerships relate to adolescents' benevolent and hostile sexist attitudes. We relied on data gathered in 2013 by the Flemish Youth Research Platform and performed multivariate analyses on 755 parent-child dyads (n _♂ = 342; n _♀ = 413). Our results indicate that social characteristics especially matter to explain the variation in benevolent sexist attitudes among girls and hostile sexist attitudes among boys. Among girls, being in a romantic relationship and parents' traditional moral beliefs was strongly related to benevolent sexism; while for boys, hostile sexism was strongly related to being enrolled in technical and vocational education. In the conclusion, we elaborate on the implications of our findings.

REFLECT – ein Interventionsprogramm zum Aufbau von Lehrkräftekompetenzen für Reflexive Koedukation

Zusammenfassung. Studien zeigen, dass geschlechterstereotype Annahmen und Erwartungen von Lehrkräften die Bildungskarrieren ihrer Schüler_innen beeinflussen. Systematisch evaluierte Interventionen, die Lehrkräfte dabei unterstützen, eigene Geschlechterstereotype zu reflektieren und Mädchen und Jungen gleichermaßen zu fördern, existieren jedoch kaum. Das Interventionsprogramm REFLECT zielt darauf ab, bei Lehrkräften die Kompetenzen für Reflexive Koedukation aufzubauen. Dazu setzt es an deren objektivem Handlungsrepertoire (Wissen, Unterrichtsgestaltung) und subjektivem Handlungsraum (Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung, Implizite Theorien über Geschlechtsunterschiede) an. In einer Pilotstudie wurde die Wirksamkeit von REFLECT anhand eines Zwei-Gruppen-Prä-Post-Designs evaluiert. Die 38 Lehrkräfte der Interventionsgruppe zeigten einen stärkeren Zuwachs im Wissen über Geschlechtsunterschiede und in der auf Autonomieförderung abzielenden Unterrichtsgestaltung als die 76 Lehrkräfte der Kontrollgruppe. Zudem war in der Interventionsgruppe ein stärkerer Zuwachs in der Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung bzgl. Motivationsförderung und eine stärkere Abnahme der Überzeugung, dass Geschlechtsunterschiede unveränderbar sind, zu beobachten. Insgesamt ist REFLECT ein vielversprechender Ansatz, um Lehrkräfte zu Reflexiver Koedukation zu befähigen und die Genderfairness der Schule zu erhöhen.