Physiological factors associated with ski-mountaineering vertical race performance

Competitive Demands and Performance-Determining Variables in Olympic Ski Mountaineering

PURPOSE

To investigate the competitive demands and performance-determining variables in the Sprint and Mixed-Relay formats in male and female ski mountaineers.

METHODS

Performance data of 76 ski mountaineers (36 females) competing in a World Cup event were analyzed. A total of 20 ski mountaineers (11 females) completed ski-mountaineering-specific maximal and supramaximal (intensity > VO2max) tests, with a subgroup of 10 ski mountaineers (5 females) being monitored during the races.

RESULTS

Near-maximal cardiac responses (>95% of maximal heart rate) were observed in the 2 formats, with significantly higher ascent speed and contribution of lactic anaerobic metabolism in the Sprint than in the Mixed Relay (blood lactate 12.9 [3.2] vs 6.3 [1.2] mmol/L, P < .001). Uphill skiing represented the majority of race time in both formats and accounted for most of the variance in performance (∼80%-90%), with transition times explaining almost all the remaining variance (∼10%-15%). In the Mixed Relay, the skiing speed at the second ventilatory threshold (R2 = .78, P = .001) and the maximal speed at the end of the VO2max test (R2 = .78, P = .019) were the best predictors of performance in the whole pool of ski mountaineers and in males, respectively. The maximal sustainable skiing speed over a 2-minute effort was the best predictor of performance in the Sprint (R2 = .95, P < .001) for both sexes.

DISCUSSION

Ski mountaineers should tailor their training considering the specific physiological demands of each race, emphasizing near-maximal to maximal intensities for the Mixed Relay and supramaximal intensities for the Sprint. These insights into Olympic ski-mountaineering disciplines are of considerable value for athletes and coaches in preparation for the Winter Olympics.

Sex differences in elite ski mountaineering aerobic performance

Ski mountaineering (SkiMo) sprints will debut as an Olympic sport in 2026, yet research on the discipline remains scarce compared to other winter sports. The demanding sprint format, with most of the race time spent on uphill sections, highlights the importance of body composition and maximal oxygen consumption (V˙O2max). While previous studies have primarily focused on male athletes, this study aimed to analyze sex differences in physiological parameters of elite SkiMo athletes, hypothesizing that differences in vertical velocities (vV) would surpass those in V˙O2 at ventilatory thresholds (VT1, VT2) and maximal intensity (MAX), respectively. Twenty elite/worldclass Swiss SkiMo athletes (6 women, 14 men, aged 20-32 years) participated in the study. They performed a graded exercise test to exhaustion on a treadmill set at a 25% slope, with breath-by-breath gas exchanges. Elite female SkiMo athletes had a V˙O2 value 13.6% lower at MAX (64.0 ± 3.8 vs. 72.8 ± 5.5 ml/kg/min; p = 0.002) and 15.5% lower at VT2 (54.8 ± 2.8 vs. 62.2 ± 5.8 ml/kg/min; p = 0.009) than their male counterparts. Interestingly, the sex-differences in vV at both MAX (1,825 ± 113 vs. 2,125 ± 156 m/h; p < 0.001; 16.4%) and VT2 (1,412 ± 56 vs. 1,696 ± 151 m/h; p < 0.001; 20.1%) intensities were consistently larger than the differences in V˙O2. Moreover, fat mass was higher in females (15.2 ± 1.0 vs. 6.6 ± 0.6%; p = 0.004). Additionally, vertical running energy cost at VT2 was significantly higher in females compared to males (2,329 ± 95 vs. 2,199 ± 60 ml/kg/kmv; p = 0.018). Sex differences in uphill velocities (16.4-20.1%) exceeded those in V˙O2 (13.6-16.5%). Investigation on the underlying mechanisms is required but several factors may contribute to this pronounced sex difference in uphill velocity beyond aerobic power alone. Overall, the present findings align with recent studies reporting a 16%-20% difference in performance times when investigating sex differences in uphill displacement. The performance gap between men and women appears to be larger in uphill sports.

Physiological characteristics and performance of a world-record breaking tower runner

This study reports the physiological and performance profiles of a world-class tower runner during a 6-week period surrounding a successful Guinness World Record (WR) attempt, and discusses the efficacy of a tower running specific field test. The world-ranked number 2 tower runner completed four exercise tests [laboratory treadmill assessment (3 weeks before the WR attempt), familiarisation to a specific incremental tower running field test (1 week before), tower running field test (1 week after), and tower running time trial (TT) (3 weeks after)] and the WR attempt within 6-week period. Peak oxygen consumption (VO₂peak) during the laboratory test, field test, and TT were 73.3, 75.5 and 78.3 mL·kg^-1·min^-1, respectively. The VO₂ corresponding to the second ventilatory threshold was 67.3 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 (89.1% of VO₂peak), identified at stage 4 (tempo; 100 b·min^-1), during the field test. The duration of the TT was 10 min 50 s, with an average VO₂ of 71.7 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 (91.6% of VO₂peak), HR of 171 b·min^-1 (92% of peak HR), vertical speed of 0.47 m·s^-1, and cadence was 117 steps·min^-1. A world-class tower runner possesses a well-developed aerobic capacity. A specific, field-based test revealed greater VO₂peak than a laboratory test, indicating a need for sport-specific testing procedures.

Is Recovery Optimized by Using a Cycle Ergometer Between Ski-Mountaineering Sprints?

PURPOSE

To optimize the recovery phase between heats in ski-mountaineering sprint competitions, this study investigated whether an active recovery protocol on an ergocycle could improve subsequent performance compared with a self-selected recovery strategy.

METHODS

Thirteen elite ski mountaineers (9 men and 4 women) performed 3 sprints with 2 different recovery conditions (Ergo vs Free) in a randomized order. The Ergo condition involved a 10-minute constant-intensity exercise on an ergocycle performed at 70% of maximum heart rate. For the Free condition, the athlete was asked to self-select modality. At the end of the third sprint, a passive recovery (seated) was prescribed for both protocols. Sprint performance (time) and physiological parameters (lactate concentration [La], heart rate [HR], and rating of perceived exertion [RPE]) were recorded from each sprint and recovery phase.

RESULTS

In the Ergo vs Free protocols, sprint times (177 [24] s vs 176 [23] s; P = .63), recovery average HR (70% [2.9%] vs 71% [5.2%] of maximal HR), and RPE (16.7 [1.5] vs 16.8 [1.5]; P = .81) were not significantly different. However, [La] decreased more after Ergo (-2.9 [1.8] mmol·L-1) and Free (-2.8 [1.8] mmol·L-1) conditions compared with passive recovery (-1.1 [1.6] mmol·L-1; P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of an ergocycle between heat sprints in ski mountaineering does not provide additional benefits compared with a recovery strategy freely chosen by the athletes. However, active conditions provide a faster [La] reduction compared with passive recovery and seem to be a more suitable strategy between multiple-heat sprints.

Ski Mountaineering-Scientific Knowledge of This New Olympic Sport: A Narrative Review

ABSTRACT

Ski mountaineering (skimo) has been accepted as a new sport for the 2026 Milan-Cortina Olympics. The equipment used in this competitive ski mountaineering varies from leisure ski mountaineering equipment mainly in one point: the minimal weight. At the elite athlete level, skimo demands both maximal endurance performance and a high-intensity anaerobic capacity for the sprint and vertical races. Race time significantly correlates to V˙O2max, body mass index and racing gear mass. Available literature only rarely comments on competitive skimo injuries. Injuries are not only due to falls in downhill skiing but also can result from external hazards, such as avalanches and cold. The high training load of athletes in combination with a low body weight, low body fat, and exposure to cold cause high rates of respiratory infections in athletes. The inclusion of skimo into the Olympic program is expected to result in certain changes, such as higher training loads for the athletes and increased scientific interest into training methods.

Heel riser height and slope gradient influence the kinematics and kinetics of ski mountaineering—A laboratory study

In ski mountaineering, equipment and its interaction with the exercising human plays an important role. The binding, as the crucial connection between boot and ski, must ensure safe fixation during downhill skiing and a free moving heel when walking uphill. Uphill, the binding offers the possibility to adopt the height of the heel (riser height) to personal preferences and the steepness of the ascent. This possible adjustment and its influence on various biomechanical parameters are the focus of this work. For this study, 19 male leisure ski mountaineers were tested on a treadmill, ascending at a fixed submaximal speed (3.9 ± 0.4 km·h−1) at 8, 16, and 24% gradient and with three heel riser heights, low (0 cm), medium (3.0 cm) and high (5.3 cm). The applied biomechanical measurement systems included a 3D motion capture system in sagittal plane, pressure insoles, a with strain gauges instrumented pole, spirometry and a comfort scale. Step length and step frequency were influenced by the riser height and the gradient (p ≤ 0.001). The high riser height decreased the step length by 5% compared to the low riser height over all tested gradients, while steps were 9.2% longer at the 24% gradient compared to the 8% gradient over all three riser heights. The high riser height revealed a force impulse of the pole 13% lower than using the low riser height (p &lt; 0.001). Additionally, the high riser height reduced the range of motion of the knee joint and the ankle joint compared to the low riser height (p &lt; 0.001). Therefore, advantageous settings can be derived, with the low riser height creating proper range of motion for ankle, knee and hip joint and higher propulsion via the pole at 8%, while higher riser heights like the medium setting do so at steeper gradients. These findings are in line with the conducted comfort scale. We would not recommend the highest riser height for the analyzed gradients in this study, but it might be an appropriate choice for higher gradients.

Ski Mountaineering: Perspectives on a Novel Sport to Be Introduced at the 2026 Winter Olympic Games

Ski mountaineering is a rapidly growing winter sport that involves alternately climbing and descending slopes and various racing formats that differ in length and total vertical gain, as well as their distribution of downhill and uphill sections. In recent years, both participation in and media coverage of this sport have increased dramatically, contributing, at least in part, to its inclusion in the 2026 Winter Olympics in Milano-Cortina. Here, our aim has been to briefly describe the major characteristics of ski mountaineering, its physiological and biomechanical demands, equipment, and training/testing, as well as to provide some future perspectives. Despite its popularity, research on this discipline is scarce, but some general characteristics are already emerging. Pronounced aerobic capacity is an important requirement for success, as demonstrated by positive correlations between racing time and maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen uptake at the second ventilatory threshold. Moreover, due to the considerable mechanical work against gravity on demanding uphill terrain, the combined weight of the athlete and equipment is inversely correlated with performance, prompting the development of both lighter and better equipment in recent decades. In ski mountaineering, velocity uphill is achieved primarily by more frequent (rather than longer) strides due primarily to high resistive forces. The use of wearable technologies, designed specifically for analysis in the field (including at elevated altitudes and cold temperatures) and more extensive collaboration between researchers, industrial actors, and coaches/athletes, could further improve the development of this sport.

Physiological Responses and Predictors of Performance in a Simulated Competitive Ski Mountaineering Race

Competitive ski mountaineering (SKIMO) has achieved great popularity within the past years. However, knowledge about the predictors of performance and physiological response to SKIMO racing is limited. Therefore, 21 male SKIMO athletes split into two performance groups (elite: VO_2max 71.2 ± 6.8 ml· min^-1· kg^-1 vs. sub-elite: 62.5 ± 4.7 ml· min^-1· kg^-1) were tested and analysed during a vertical SKIMO race simulation (523 m elevation gain) and in a laboratory SKIMO specific ramp test. In both cases, oxygen consumption (VO₂), heart rate (HR), blood lactate and cycle characteristics were measured. During the race simulation, the elite athletes were approximately 5 min faster compared with the sub-elite (27:15 ± 1:16 min; 32:31 ± 2:13 min; p < 0.001). VO₂ was higher for elite athletes during the race simulation (p = 0.046) and in the laboratory test at ventilatory threshold 2 (p = 0.005) and at maximum VO₂ (p = 0.003). Laboratory maximum power output is displayed as treadmill speed and was higher for elite than sub-elite athletes (7.4 ± 0.3 km h^-1; 6.6 ± 0.3 km h^-1; p < 0.001). Lactate values were higher in the laboratory maximum ramp test than in the race simulation (p < 0.001). Pearson's correlation coefficient between race time and performance parameters was highest for velocity and VO₂ related parameters during the laboratory test (r > 0.6). Elite athletes showed their superiority in the race simulation as well as during the maximum ramp test. While HR analysis revealed a similar strain to both cohorts in both tests, the superiority can be explainable by higher VO₂ and power output. To further push the performance of SKIMO athletes, the development of named factors like power output at maximum and ventilatory threshold 2 seems crucial.

Effects of Flywheel Strength Training on the Running Economy of Recreational Endurance Runners

Festa, L, Tarperi, C, Skroce, K, Boccia, G, Lippi, G, La Torre, A, and Schena, F. Effects of flywheel strength training on the running economy of recreational endurance runners. J Strength Cond Res 33(3): 684-690, 2019-Running economy (RE) has been defined as the most important determining factor in endurance performance in both elite and recreational runners. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of flywheel strength training (FST) and high-intensity training (HIT) protocols on RE and strength parameters in a group of recreational runners. Twenty-nine recreational runners were recruited to take part in the study and were randomly assigned to FST (n = 9; 44.5 ± 6.0 years; V[Combining Dot Above]O2max 48.8 ± 5.2 ml·min·kg), HIT (n = 9; 42.2 ± 8.6 years; V[Combining Dot Above]O2max 50.3 ± 3.7 ml·min·kg), or low-intensity training (LIT) (n = 11; 45.4 ± 8.0 years; V[Combining Dot Above]O2max 50.2 ± 6.8 ml min kg) groups. Before and after 8 weeks of an experimental period, maximal oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2max), ventilatory thresholds (VTs), maximal dynamic force (1 repetition maximum [1RM]), and anthropometric data were evaluated. The FST group showed significant increases (p < 0.05) in 1RM and RE. No differences were found in the other groups. Significative changes are found for all groups on average speed on 2 and 10 km (p < 0.05). Anthropometric data were unchanged after the training period. The results of this study indicate that in recreational runners, FST seems able to obtain improvements in RE and neuromuscular adaptation.