Levels and risk factors of antimony contamination in human hair from an electronic waste recycling area, Guiyu, China

Revealing the links between hair metal(loids) and alterations in blood pressure among children in e-waste recycling areas through urinary metabolomics

Hypertension is prevalent in e-waste recycling areas, and elevated blood pressure in children significantly increases the risk of hypertension in adulthood. However, the associations and toxic pathways between chronic exposure to metal(loids) and elevated blood pressure are rarely investigated. In this study, we measured the levels of 29 hair metal(loids) (chronic exposure biomarkers) and blood pressure in 667 susceptible children from an e-waste recycling area to explore their relationships. Paired urine metabolomics analysis was also performed to interpret potential mechanistic pathways. Results showed that the hypertension prevalence in our recruited children (13.0 %) exceeded the average rate (9.5 %) for Chinese children aged 6-17 years. The top five abundant metal(loids), including lead, strontium, barium, and zinc, demonstrated the most profound associations with elevated systolic blood pressure. Quantile g-computation, weighted quantile sum, and Bayesian kernel machine regression analysis jointly demonstrated a significant association between chronic exposure to metal(loids) mixture and systolic blood pressure. Interestingly, selenium showed significant antagonistic interactions with these four metals, suggesting that supplementing selenium may help children resist the elevated blood pressure induced by metal(loids) exposure. Increased metal(loids) and blood pressure levels were significantly linked to changes in urine metabolomics. Structural equation model indicated that androsterone glucuronide and N-Acetyl-1-aspartylglutamic acid were the significant mediators of the associations between metal(loids) and blood pressure, with mediation effects of 77.4 % and 29.0 %, respectively, suggesting that androsterone glucuronide and N-Acetyl-1-aspartylglutamic acid may be involved in the development of metal-induced blood pressure elevating effect. Girls were more vulnerable to metal(loids)-induced hormonal imbalance, especially androsterone glucuronide, than boys. Chronic exposure to metal(loids) at e-waste recycling sites may contribute to elevated blood pressure in children through disrupting various metabolism pathways, particularly hormonal balance. Our study provides new insights into potential mechanistic pathways of metal(loids)-induced changes in children's blood pressure.

Concentrations and influencing factors of 17 elements in placenta, cord blood, and maternal blood of women from an e-waste recycling area

BACKGROUND

The effects of prenatal element exposure on mothers and fetuses have generated concern. Profiles of trace and toxic elements in biological material are urgently desired, especially for women who reside near e-waste recycling facilities. The aim of this study was to investigate elements concentrations in placenta, cord blood, and maternal blood of women and to evaluate the influencing factors.

METHODS

A group of 48 women from an e-waste recycling site and a group of 31 women from a non-e-waste recycling site were recruited. Basic characteristics were collected by questionnaire and the concentrations of 17 elements in placenta, cord blood, and maternal blood samples were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Finally, the generalized linear model regression analysis (GLM) was used to test the association between element concentrations and possible factors.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, the exposed group had significantly elevated cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), and antimony (Sb) in placenta, and higher lead (Pb) in maternal blood and cord blood (P<0.05). Sb concentration in maternal blood was significantly lower than in the control group (P<0.05). GLM analysis showed that element concentrations were mainly associated with maternal age [chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), selenium (Se), cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg) in placenta, copper (Cu) in maternal blood], education (Se, Sb in placenta), family income (Cu in maternal blood and Ni in placenta), passive smoking [Cu and Zn in placenta, Pb in maternal blood], and e-waste contact history (Hg in cord blood, Cu, Zn, and Cd in maternal blood).

CONCLUSIONS

Women in the e-waste recycling area had higher toxic element levels in the placenta and blood samples. More preventive measures were needed to reduce the risk of element exposure for mothers and fetuses in these areas.

Short-term exposure to antimony induces hepatotoxicity and metabolic remodeling in rats

Antimony (Sb) poses a significant threat to human health due to sharp increases in its exploitation and application globally, but few studies have explored the pathophysiological mechanisms of acute hepatotoxicity induced by Sb exposure. We established an in vivo model to comprehensively explore the endogenous mechanisms underlying liver injury induced by short-term Sb exposure. Adult female and male Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administrated various concentrations of potassium antimony tartrate for 28 days. After exposure, the serum Sb concentration, liver-to-body weight ratio, and serum glucose levels significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner. Body weight gain and serum concentrations of biomarkers of hepatic injury (e.g., total cholesterol, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, and the aspartate aminotransferase/alanine aminotransferase ratio) decreased with increasing Sb exposure. Through integrative non-targeted metabolome and lipidome analyses, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism; phosphatidylcholines; sphingomyelins; and phosphatidylinositols were the most significantly affected pathways in female and male rats exposed to Sb. Additionally, correlation analysis showed that the concentrations of certain metabolites and lipids (e.g., deoxycholic acid, N-methylproline, palmitoylcarnitine, glycerophospholipids, sphingomyelins, and glycerol) were significantly associated with hepatic injury biomarkers, indicating that metabolic remodeling may be involved in apical hepatotoxicity. Our study demonstrated that short-term exposure to Sb induces hepatotoxicity, possibly through a glycolipid metabolism disorder, providing an important reference for the health risks of Sb pollution.

Silicone wristband- and handwipe-based assessment of exposure to flame retardants for informal electronic-waste and end-of-life-vehicle recycling workers and their children in Vietnam

Measuring personal exposure to flame retardants (FRs) is crucial for assessing and controlling human health risks posed by FRs during the recycling of electronic waste (e-waste) and end-of-life vehicles (ELVs). Here, we examined the use of handwipes and silicone wristbands to measure personal FR exposure for e-waste and ELV recycling workers and their children in Vietnam. On the handwipes from the e-waste recycling workers, the predominant five FRs detected were TBBPA (median concentration: 3700 ng/wipe), BDE-209 (1700 ng/wipe), TPHP (500 ng/wipe), DBDPE (410 ng/wipe), and BPA-BDPP (360 ng/wipe). On the handwipes from ELV recycling workers, TPHP (60 ng/wipe), IPPDPP (47 ng/wipe), BIPPPP/DIPPDPP (33 ng/wipe), BDE-209 (26 ng/wipe), and TCIPP (23 ng/wipe) were detected as the five predominant FRs. On the wristbands from the e-waste recycling workers, the five predominant FRs detected were TBBPA (median concentration: 340 ng/g), BDE-209 (330 ng/g), DBDPE (65 ng/g), TPHP (50 ng/g), and TMPP (34 ng/g). On the wristbands from the ELV recycling workers, TPHP (34 ng/g), IPPDPP (18 ng/g), TCIPP (14 ng/g), TDMPP (13 ng/g), BIPPPP/DIPPDPP (9.3 ng/g) and TMPP (9.3 ng/g) were detected as the predominant FRs. The data obtained with the wristbands were comparable to those obtained with the handwipes. Similar FR profiles were found in between the workers and their children. The profiles indicate that the informal e-waste and ELV recycling caused FR exposure not only for workers but also for their children who live in the workshops. By using the handwipe and wristband sampling approaches, we determined types and concentrations of FRs to which the workers and their children were dominantly exposed. Silicone wristband- and handwipe-based assessment is expected to be effective means of measuring personal FR exposure for the informal e-waste and ELV recycling workers and their children.

E-WASTE threatens health: The scientific solution adopts the one health strategy

The aggressively extractive advanced technology industry thrives on intensive use of non-renewable resources and hyper-consumeristic culture. The environmental impact of its exponential growth means extreme mining, hazardous labour practices including child labour, and exposure burden to inorganic and organic hazardous chemicals for the environment and current and future human generations. Globally, processes such as in-country reduce, reuse and recycle have so far received less attention than outer-circle strategies like the uncontrolled dumping of e-waste in countries that are unprotected by regulatory frameworks. Here, in the absence of infrastructures for sound hazardous e-waste management, the crude recycling, open burning and dumping into landfills of e-waste severely expose people, animal and the environment. Along with economic, political, social, and cultural solutions to the e-waste global problem, the scientific approach based on risk analysis encompassing risk assessment, risk management and risk communication can foster a technical support to resist transgenerational e-waste exposure and health inequalities. This paper presents the latest public health strategies based on the use of integrated human and animal biomonitoring and appropriate biomarkers to assess and manage the risk of e-waste embracing the One Health approach. Advantages and challenges of integrated biomonitoring are described, along with ad-hoc biomarkers of exposure, effect and susceptibility with special focus on metals and metalloids. Indeed, the safe and sustainable management of novel technologies will benefit of the integration and coordination of human and animal biomonitoring.

Antimony reduction by a non-conventional sulfate reducer with simultaneous bioenergy production in microbial fuel cells

Environmental toxicity of antimony (Sb) is significantly increased through the widespread industrial application. The extended release of Sb above the regulatory level became a risk to humans habituated in the ecosystem. Conventional methods to remediate Sb demand high energy or resource input, which further leads to secondary pollution. The bio-electrochemical system offers a promising bioremediation strategy to remove or reduce toxic heavy metals. Thus, this research explores the possibilities of simultaneous metal sulfide (MeS) precipitation and electricity production using a full biological Microbial fuel cell (MFC). A non-conventional sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) Citrobacter freundii SR10 was used for this investigation, where the MFC was operated for lactate utilization in the bio-anode and Sb reduction at the bio-cathode. This study observed 81% of coulombic efficiency (bio-anode) and 97% of sulfate reduction with 99.3% Sb (V) reduction (bio-cathode), and it was concluded that the MeS precipitation entirely depends on sulfide concentration via SR10 sulfate reduction. The MFC-SR10 offers a maximum power density of 1652.9 ± 32.1 mW/m^3, and their performance was depicted using cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The Sb reduction was evaluated through fluorescence spectroscopy, and the Sb (V) MeS precipitation was confirmed as stibnite (Sb₂S₃) by Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Furthermore, the matured anodic and cathodic biofilm formation was confirmed by Scanning electron microscopy with Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Thus the MFC with SRB bio-cathode can be used as an alternative to simultaneously remove sulfate and Sb from the wastewater with electricity production.

Forty years studies on polychlorinated biphenyls pollution, food safety, health risk, and human health in an e-waste recycling area from Taizhou city, China: a review

E-waste generation has become a serious environmental challenge worldwide. Taizhou of Zhejiang Province, situated on the southeast coastline of China, has been one of the major e-waste dismantling areas in China for the last 40 years. In this review, we focused on the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) trends in environmental compartments, burden and impact to humans, food safety, and health risk assessment from Taizhou, China. The review suggested that PCBs showed dynamic trends in air, soil, water, biodiversity, and sediments. Soils and fish samples indicated higher levels of PCBs than sediments, air, water, and food items. PCB levels decreased in soils with the passage of time. Agriculture soils near the e-waste recycling sites showed more levels of total PCBs than industrial soils and urban soils. Dioxin-like PCB levels were higher in humans near Taizhou, suggesting that e-waste pollution could influence humans. Compared with large-scale plants, simple household workshops contributed more pollution of PCBs to the environment. Pollution index, hazard quotient, and daily intake were higher for PCBs, suggesting Taizhou should be given priority to manage the e-waste pollution. The elevated body burden may have health implications for the next generation. The areas with stricter control measures, strengthened laws and regulations, and more environmentally friendly techniques indicated reduced levels of PCBs. For environment protection and health safety, proper e-waste dismantling techniques, environmentally sound management, awareness, and regular monitoring are very important.

Human Body Burden of Heavy Metals and Health Consequences of Pb Exposure in Guiyu, an E-Waste Recycling Town in China

Guiyu accommodates millions of tons of e-waste from overseas and domestic sources each year and is notorious for its e-waste dismantling industry. As a consequence, Guiyu has been described as "the world's most toxic place" and "junk town". Informal e-waste recycling activities have caused severe pollution to the local environment and are associated with extensive health problems to the residents. This review provides updated insights on the body burden of heavy metals derived from e-waste and health outcomes resulted from lead (Pb) exposure. The review identified that Guiyu has been highly contaminated by heavy metals, especially Pb. Excessive exposure to Pb has been associated with multi-system and long-term effects in neonates and children, covering nervous, cardiovascular, adaptive immune, and hematologic systems as well as chromosome and DNA damage. Our review indicates strong associations that emphasize the need to develop strong regulations for prevention of exposure and health consequences in Guiyu and similar sites around the world.

Assessment of DNA damage in relation to heavy metal induced oxidative stress in females with recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL)

Pregnancy termination consecutively for three or more times during the first trimester is termed as Recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL). In addition to the abnormal karyotype, heavy metal induced oxidative damage may contribute as prominent etiological factor in pregnancy termination. Oxidative stress is considered crucial in etiology underlying RPL with altered antioxidant status and subsequent DNA damage. The current case controlled study investigated Total antioxidant capacity (TAC), DNA damage (8OHdG) and heavy metals in RPL group (n = 30) and the women with successful pregnancies and no cases of miscarriage as control group (30 women). Heavy metals -Antimony (Sb) and Arsenic (As) were measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass spectrophotometry (ICP-MS). There was significant decrease in levels of TAC in RPL group compared to healthy pregnant women (P < 0.05). On contrary, elevated levels of As and Sb were observed in RPL group with subsequent increase in the levels of 8OHdG (P < 0.001); indicating extensive DNA damage in these patients. Furthermore, increased levels of As and Sb in RPL group were positively correlated with 8OHdG and negatively with total antioxidant capacity. The outcome of the study provides clear insight of the role of metal induced oxidative stress that plays a vital role in the pathophysiology underlying RPL.

Environmental and economic performance analysis of recycling waste printed circuit boards using life cycle assessment

Recycling precious elements from the electronic waste could be an environmental friendly way to avoid likely ecological damages caused by leaching of heavy metals and toxic elements as well as an economically attractive option to recover valuable materials that would otherwise be wasted. This research assessed the environmental and economic performance of recovering nine metal elements (aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), gold (Au), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), tin (Sn), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe)) and two non-metal materials (resin and glass-fiber) from the waste printed circuit boards (PCBs), one of the vital components of electronic-waste (e-waste). SimaPro software was used to assess the environmental performance of recycling waste PCBs. Data were collected from recycling plants in Taichung City, Taiwan, and Eco-invent database was also used in the study. The impacts of metal recycling from PCBs were compared with the impacts caused by the mining of respective metals from their natural ores. Among the analyzed elements, only the recovery of Au from waste PCBs proved to have less environmental impacts than the mining from the natural ore. Among 16 environmental impact categories (ILCD midpoint 2011+ method of impact analysis) considered in the present study, cancer and non-cancer human toxicity were the most affected categories followed by minerals, fossils, and resource extraction. However, the economic analysis showed that the recycling of all elements from waste PCBs had a net positive benefit. When considering both the environment and economic performance, the recycling of Au proved to be a beneficial option.

Lead and noise exposures at eight Chinese registered electronics recycling facilities

The purpose of this study was to assess employees' exposure to lead and noise, and to recommend control strategies for reducing these exposures at eight registered electronics recycling facilities in Eastern China. Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention (JSCDC) performed a walkthrough and review of health and safety programs during a first visit and conducted full-shift personal and area air monitoring for lead, as well as personal noise exposure measurements on a second visit. Monitoring was performed over two work shifts for a total of 168 employees. Results indicated that employees working at glass breaking and cathode ray tubes dismantling were overexposed both to noise and lead. Airborne lead concentration ranged from 0.1 to 148 μg/m³; and 4 of the 101 samples were above the Chinese permissible exposure limit of 50 μg/m³. Overexposures to lead involved cathode ray tubes dismantling and glass breaking. Employees working at plastics shredding and glass breaking areas were overexposed to noise. Full-shift time-weighted average noise levels ranged from 64 to 107 dBA; and 85 of the 123 samples were above the Chinese permissible exposure limit of 85 dBA. Control measures to reduce exposure to lead and noise, including improvements in their lead protection and hearing conservation programs, at these electronics recycling facilities were recommended.

The Social Cost of Informal Electronic Waste Processing in Southern China

Large amounts of e-waste are processed “informally” in lower income countries. Such processing releases dangerous pollutants, which increase mortality and reduce cognitive functioning. This paper estimates the social cost of informal e-waste processing in Southern China. This parameter may be “plugged-in” to cost-benefit analyses that evaluate the economic efficiency of policies to reduce informal e-waste processing in China or other lower income countries. It may also be used in the estimation of the social benefits (or costs) of new or proposed e-waste processing policies in higher income countries. We estimate that the social cost of informal e-waste processing in Guiyu is about $529 million. This amount is equivalent to about $423 per tonne (in 2018 US dollars) or $3528 per person, which is over half the gross income per capita of the residents of Guiyu. We also perform sensitivity analysis that varies the estimated mortality outcomes, the value of a statistical life and the amount of e-waste processed.

A Review of Biomarkers Used for Assessing Human Exposure to Metals from E-Waste

Electronic waste recycling presents workers and communities with a potential for exposures to dangerous chemicals, including metals. This review examines studies that report on blood, hair, and urine biomarkers of communities and workers exposed to metals from e-waste. Our results from the evaluation of 19 publications found that there are consistently elevated levels of lead found in occupationally and non-occupationally exposed populations, in both the formal and the informal e-waste recycling sectors. Various other metals were found to be elevated in different exposure groups assessed using various types of biomarkers, but with less consistency than found in lead. Antimony and cadmium generally showed higher concentrations in exposed groups compared to reference group(s). Mercury and arsenic did not show a trend among exposure groups due to the dietary and environmental considerations. Observed variations in trends amongst exposure groups within studies using multiple biomarkers highlights the need to carefully select appropriate biomarkers. Our study concludes that there is a need for more rigorous research that moves past cross-sectional study designs, involves more thoughtful and methodical selection of biomarkers, and a systematic reporting standard for exposure studies to ensure that results can be compared across studies.

Metal concentrations in pregnant women and neonates from informal electronic waste recycling

Electronic waste (e-waste) is the fastest growing solid waste stream worldwide and mostly ends up in developing countries where residents use primitive methods for recycling. The most infamous e-waste recycling town, Guiyu in Southeast China, has been recycling since the mid-1990s. E-waste contains several harmful chemicals, including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and manganese (Mn). In 2011-12, the e-waste Recycling Exposures and Community Health (e-REACH) Study enrolled 634 pregnant women living in Guiyu and Haojiang, a control site, both in Shantou, China. The women completed a questionnaire and gave maternal blood, cord blood, and maternal urine, which were analyzed for Pb, Cd, Cr, and Mn. Maternal blood Pb, Cd, and Cr concentrations were significantly higher in Guiyu compared to Haojiang. In Guiyu, the geometric mean of Pb concentration in maternal blood was 6.66 µg/dL (range: 1.87-27.09 µg/dL) and was 1.74-fold greater than in Haojiang (95% CI: 1.60, 1.89). In cord blood, Pb concentration was 1.53-fold higher in Guiyu (95% CI: 1.38, 1.68). In maternal urine, Cd (ratio: 2.15, 95% CI: 1.72, 2.69) and Mn (ratio: 2.60, 95% CI: 2.04, 3.31) concentrations were significantly higher in Guiyu in comparison to Haojiang. In conclusion, pregnant women in Guiyu were at risk for increased exposure to heavy metals.

Environmental pollution and human body burden from improper recycling of e-waste in China: A short-review

BRIEF BACKGROUND

E-waste generation has become a serious environmental challenge worldwide. The global quantity of e-waste was estimated 44.7 million metric tons (Mt) in 2016. The improper recycling of e-waste is still a challenging issue in developing countries.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this a review article to present comprehensive information of recent studied on environment pollution and effect on human health in China.

METHOD

The search engines consulted, period of publications reviewed 2015-2018. For search study, we used different key words: 'improper recycling', 'primitive recycling,' 'backyard recycling,' 'e-waste,' 'WEEE', and the studies related to improper recycling of e-waste.

RESULTS

According to reports, the e-waste recycled by unorganized sectors in China. These unorganized sector workers daily go for work, such as e-waste collection from consumer house and manual dismantling of e-waste by using simple method, at unauthorized workshop. These backyard workshop are reported in small clusters in or around city e.g., Qingyuan village; Taizhou, Longtang Town, Guiyu, nearby Nanyang River and Beigang River in China.

DISCUSSION

The earlier reported studies directed the heavy metals effect (causing effects both acute and chronic effects; respiratory irritation, reproductive problem, cardiovascular and urinary infection/disease) on human health. According the reports, the improper recycling of e-waste which need to be address for the environment protection and prevention of public health risk. However, if e-waste exposure is not avoided very well, the associated contamination will be continuing, and simultaneously needful to increase the awareness for proper e-waste management in China.

CONCLUSIONS

In order to solve the e-waste problem in China, more detail research is needed. Furthermore, for environment protection and health safety, the proper e-waste dismantling techniques, environmentally sound management, and the regular monitoring are very important.

Antimony exposure and speciation in human biomarkers near an active mining area in Hunan, China

Antimony (Sb) exposure threatens human health. To identify human biomarkers for Sb exposure, we analyzed 480 environmental samples from an active Sb mining area in Hunan, China. Elevated Sb concentrations exceeding the reference level were detected in drinking water (70% of n = 83 total samples), foods (80%, n = 188), urine (95%, n = 63), saliva (44%, n = 48), hair (80%, n = 51) and nails (83%, n = 47). Drinking water contributed 85%-100% of the average daily dose (ADD) of Sb, and the total ADD (11.7 μg/kg bodyweight/day) was up to thirty times higher than the oral reference dose (0.4 μg/kg bodyweight/day) as recommended by USEPA. A positive correlation was found between ADD and Sb content in hair (p = 0.02), but not in urine (p = 0.051), saliva (p = 0.52) or nails (p = 0.85), suggesting that hair is the best non-invasive biomarker. Micro X-ray fluorescence analysis indicated that Sb is distributed in discrete spots in hair and nails, and Sb distribution is correlated with other metals. Methylated Sb species were predominant in urine (46%-100%) and saliva (74%-100%) in collected samples, implying that the human metabolic system adopts methylation as an effective pathway to detoxify and excrete Sb.

Body burden of toxic metals and rare earth elements in non-smokers, cigarette smokers and electronic cigarette users

Smoking is considered an important source for inorganic elements, most of them toxic for human health. During the last years, there has been a significant increase in the use of e-cigarettes, although the role of them as source of inorganic elements has not been well established. A cross-sectional study including a total of 150 subjects from Brasov (Romania), divided into three groups (non-smokers, cigarette smokers and electronic cigarettes smokers) were recruited to disclose the role of smoking on the human exposure to inorganic elements. Concentration of 42 elements, including trace elements, elements in the ATSDR's priority pollutant list and rare earth elements (REE) were measured by ICP-MS in the blood serum of participants. Cigarette smokers showed the highest levels of copper, molybdenum, zinc, antimony, and strontium. Electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) users presented the highest concentrations of selenium, silver, and vanadium. Beryllium, europium and lanthanides were detected more frequently among e-cigarette users (20.6%, 23.5%, and 14.7%) than in cigarette smokers (1.7%, 19.0%, and 12.1%, respectively); and the number of detected REE was also higher among e-cigarette users (11.8% of them showed more than 10 different elements). Serum levels of cerium and erbium increased as the duration of the use of e-cigarettes was longer. We have found that smoking is mainly a source of heavy metals while the use of e-cigarettes is a potential source of REE. However, these elements were detected at low concentrations.

Has the question of e-waste opened a Pandora's box? An overview of unpredictable issues and challenges

Despite regulatory efforts and position papers, electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) remains ill-managed as evidenced by the extremely low rates of proper e-waste recycling (e-recycling) worldwide, ongoing illegal shipments to developing countries and constantly reported human health issues and environmental pollution. The objectives of this review are, first, to expose the complexity of e-waste problems, and then to suggest possible upstream and downstream solutions. Exploring e-waste issues is akin to opening a Pandora's box. Thus, a review of prevailing e-waste management practices reveals complex and often intertwined gaps, issues and challenges. These include the absence of any consistent definition of e-waste to date, a prevalent toxic potential still involving already banned or restricted hazardous components such as heavy metals and persistent and bioaccumulative organic compounds, a relentless growth in e-waste volume fueled by planned obsolescence and unsustainable consumption, problematic e-recycling processes, a fragile formal e-recycling sector, sustained and more harmful informal e-recycling practices, and more convoluted and unpredictable patterns of illegal e-waste trade. A close examination of the e-waste legacy contamination reveals critical human health concerns, including significant occupational exposure during both formal and informal e-recycling, and persistent environmental contamination, particularly in some developing countries. However, newly detected e-waste contaminants as well as unexpected sources and environmental fates of contaminants are among the emerging issues that raise concerns. Moreover, scientific knowledge gaps remain regarding the complexity and magnitude of the e-waste legacy contamination, specifically, a comprehensive characterization of e-waste contaminants, information on the scale of legacy contamination in developing countries and on the potential environmental damage in developed countries, and a stronger body of evidence of adverse health effects specifically ascribed to e-waste contaminants. However, the knowledge accumulated to date is sufficient to raise awareness and concern among all stakeholders. Potential solutions to curb e-waste issues should be addressed comprehensively, by focusing on two fronts: upstream and downstream. Potential upstream solutions should focus on more rational and eco-oriented consumer habits in order to decrease e-waste quantities while fostering ethical and sustained commitments from manufacturers, which include a limited usage of hazardous compounds and an optimal increase in e-waste recyclability. At the downstream level, solutions should include suitable and pragmatic actions to progressively reduce the illegal e-waste trade particularly through international cooperation and coordination, better enforcement of domestic laws, and monitoring in both exporting and receiving countries, along with the supervised integration of the informal sector into the recycling system of developing countries and global expansion of formal e-waste collection and recycling activities. Downstream solutions should also introduce stronger reverse logistics, together with upgraded, more affordable, and eco-friendly and worker-friendly e-recycling technologies to ensure that benefits are derived fully and safely from the great economic potential of e-waste.

Predictors of mercury, lead, cadmium and antimony status in Norwegian never-pregnant women of fertile age

Background

The toxic trace elements mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and antimony (Sb) are transferred over the placenta to the fetus and secreted into the breastmilk. All four elements bioaccumulate in the body and as maternal age at delivery is increasing in industrialized countries, the burden of toxic trace elements in never-pregnant women of fertile age is of concern.

Methods

Healthy, never-pregnant women aged 18 to 40 years (n = 158) were recruited between June 2012 and March 2015 in Bergen, Norway. Clinical data were collected and non-fasting venous blood samples were analyzed for whole blood Hg, Pb and Cd and serum Sb by ICP-MS and related to diet and life style factors.

Results

In a multiple linear regression model, increasing age was associated with higher levels of Hg and Sb, but diet and life style factors were more important predictors. Median whole blood Hg was increased by a factor of 70 in women who had fish for dinner ≥1/week, compared to women who rarely or never ate fish (p<0.001). Alcohol intake was the strongest predictor for whole blood Pb, while use of tobacco was the strongest predictor for whole blood Cd. Being a vegetarian was associated with lower levels of both Hg and Sb.

Conclusions

As toxic trace elements tend to bioaccumulate in the body, increasing maternal age at delivery may represent a threat to the next generation. In a group of healthy Norwegian never-pregnant women, age contributed to Hg and Sb levels, but diet and life style factors were stronger determinants of whole blood Hg, Pb, Cd and serum Sb levels. Continuous public actions are needed to reduce modifiable and preventable sources of potentially deleterious toxins to minimize the exposure in children and fertile women.