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Gomes-Andrade D, Guerra-Carvalho B, Carrageta DF, Bernardino RL, Braga PC, Oliveira PF, de Lourdes Pereira M, Alves MG. Exposure to toxicologically relevant atrazine concentrations impair the glycolytic function of mouse Sertoli cells through the downregulation of lactate dehydrogenase. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2024; 486:116929. [PMID: 38608961 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2024.116929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Atrazine (ATZ), a widely used herbicide with potent endocrine-disrupting properties, has been implicated in hormonal disturbances and fertility issues. Sertoli cells (SCs) play a crucial role in providing mechanical and nutritional support of spermatogenesis. Herein, we aimed to study the effects of environmentally relevant ATZ concentrations on the nutritional support of spermatogenesis provided by SCs. For that, mouse SCs (TM4) were exposed to increasing ATZ concentrations (in μg/L: 0.3, 3, 30, 300, or 3000). After 24 h, cellular proliferation and metabolic activity were assessed. Mitochondrial activity and endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were evaluated using JC-1 and CM-H2DCFDA probes, respectively. We also analyzed protein levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) using Western Blot and live cells glycolytic function through Seahorse XF Glycolysis Stress Test Kit. ATZ exposure decreased the activity of oxidoreductases in SCs, suggesting a decreased metabolic activity. Although ATZ is reported to induce oxidative stress, we did not observe alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential and ROS production across all tested concentrations. When we evaluated the glycolytic function of SCs, we observed that ATZ significantly impaired glycolysis and the glycolytic capacity at all tested concentrations. These results were supported by the decreased expression of LDH in SCs. Overall, our findings suggest that ATZ impairs the glycolytic function of SCs through LDH downregulation. Since lactate is the preferential energetic substrate for germ cells, exposure to ATZ may detrimentally impact the nutritional support crucial for spermatogenesis, hinting for a relationship between ATZ exposure and male infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bárbara Guerra-Carvalho
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, UMIB - Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, ICBAS - School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; LAQV-REQUIMTE and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - David F Carrageta
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, UMIB - Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, ICBAS - School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Raquel L Bernardino
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, UMIB - Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, ICBAS - School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia C Braga
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, UMIB - Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, ICBAS - School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro F Oliveira
- LAQV-REQUIMTE and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Maria de Lourdes Pereira
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Marco G Alves
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; iBiMED - Institute of Biomedicine, University of Aveiro(,) Aveiro, Portugal.
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Guo J, Du Y, Yang L, Luo Y, Zhong G, Zhao HM, Liu J. Effects of microplastics on the environmental behaviors of the herbicide atrazine in soil: Dissipation, adsorption, and bioconcentration. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 465:133085. [PMID: 38070269 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
As an emerging contaminant in soil, the impact of microplastics (MPs) on the environmental behavior of other organic pollutants remains uncertain, potentially threatening the sustainability of agricultural production. In this study, the impact of two kinds of MPs on the environmental behaviors of herbicide atrazine in soil-plant system was investigated. The results showed that MPs significantly reduced the half-life 17.69 ∼ 21.86 days of atrazine in the soil, compared to the control group. Meanwhile, the introduction of MPs substantially increased atrazine adsorption. Additionally, MPs substantially enriched the diversity and functionality of soil microbiome, and the soil metabolic activity was stimulated. Regarding the crop growth, the accumulation of atrazine in maize were significantly decreased by approximately 48.4-78.5 % after exposure to MPs. In conclusion, this study reveals the impact of MPs on atrazine's environmental behaviors in soil and highlights their less effect on maize growth, providing valuable insights for managing MPs contamination in sustainable agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiatai Guo
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Integrated Pest Management in South China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yuhang Du
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Integrated Pest Management in South China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Liying Yang
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Integrated Pest Management in South China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yili Luo
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Integrated Pest Management in South China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Guohua Zhong
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Integrated Pest Management in South China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Hai-Ming Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Research Center for Environment Pollution Control and Remediation Materials, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Jie Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Integrated Pest Management in South China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
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Liu Z, Han L, Zhang X, Chen S, Wang X, Fang H. Core bacteria carrying the genes associated with the degradation of atrazine in different soils. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 181:108303. [PMID: 37948867 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Atrazine residues can pose serious threats to soil ecology and human health. Currently, the underlying relationship between soil microbial communities and the degradation genes associated with atrazine degradation remains unclear. In this study, the degradation characteristics of atrazine was investigated in ten different soil types. Further, diversity and abundance of degradation genes and succession of the bacterial community were also studied. The degradation of 10 mg/kg atrazine in different soil types exhibited an initial rapid trend followed by a gradual slowdown, adhering to the first-order kinetic equation. Atrazine significantly increased the absolute abundance of atz degradation genes. The increase in the absolute abundance of atzC gene was the largest, whereas that of atzA gene was the smallest, and the trzD gene was only detected in the Binzhou loam soil. Co-occurrence network analysis showed that the number of potential bacterial hosts of atzC was the highest compared with the other atz genes. Atrazine also altered the structural composition of the soil microbial community. The relative abundances of Ochrobactrum, Nocardiopsis, Lactobacillus, and Brevibacterium was increased in the atrazine-treated soils, while those of Conexibate, Solirubacter, and Micromonospora was decreased significantly compared with the control. Additionally, four atrazine-degrading bacterial strains Rhizobium AT1, Stenotrophomonas AT2, Brevibacterium AT3, and Bacillus AT4 were isolated from the atrazine-treated soils. After 14 d for inoculation, their degradation rate for 10 mg/L atrazine ranged from 17.56 % to 30.55 %. Moreover, the relative abundances of the bacterial genera, including these four isolates, in the atrazine-treated soil were significantly higher than those in the control, indicating that they were involved in the synergistic degradation of atrazine in the soil. This study revealed the degradation characteristics of atrazine, distribution of degradation genes, and succession of microbial communities, and explored the internal relationship between microbial community structure and atrazine degradation mechanisms in different soil types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Liu
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Qingdao 266101, PR China; Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China
| | - Lingxi Han
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, PR China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Qingdao 266101, PR China
| | - Shiyu Chen
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China
| | - Xiuguo Wang
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Qingdao 266101, PR China.
| | - Hua Fang
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China; Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China.
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Li G, Wang K, Zuo K, Shi G, Cai Q, Huang M. TDP-43 is a potential marker of dopaminergic neuronal damage caused by atrazine exposure. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 255:114780. [PMID: 36933483 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Atrazine (ATR) is one of the herbicides widely used worldwide. Meanwhile, it is an environmental endocrine disruptor that can cross the blood-brain barrier and cause damage to the endocrine-nervous system, especially by affecting the normal secretion of dopamine (DA). Regrettably, effector markers and cascade response mechanisms in damaged dopaminergic neurons induced by ATR exposure remain elusive. In this paper, we focus on investigating aggregation and position change of transactive response DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43) after ATR exposure, and illustrating whether TDP-43 can serve as a potential marker of mitochondrial dysfunction which causes damage to dopaminergic neurons. In our study, we used rat adrenal pheochromocytoma cell line 12 (PC12) to establish an in vitro model of dopaminergic neurons. After PC12 was intervened by ATR, we found reduced DA cycling and DA levels, and that TDP-43 aggregated continuously in the cytoplasm and then translocated to mitochondria. Furthermore, the studies we have performed showed that the translocation can cause mitochondrial dysfunction through activating the unfolded mitochondrial protein response (UPRmt), ultimately causing damage to dopaminergic neuron. The research we have done suggests that TDP-43 can serve as a potential effector marker of dopaminergic neuron damaged caused by ATR exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoliang Li
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Kaidong Wang
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Kai Zuo
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Ge Shi
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Qian Cai
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China.
| | - Min Huang
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, No.1160, Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China.
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Li J, Qi L, Chen Y, Lv H, Bi H. Bioinformatics analysis of the potential mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease induced by exposure to combined triazine herbicides. Ann Hum Biol 2023; 50:442-451. [PMID: 37819172 DOI: 10.1080/03014460.2023.2259242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is promoted by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Notably, combined exposure to triazine herbicides atrazine (ATR), simazine (SIM), and propazine (PRO) may promote the development of AD, but the mechanism is unknown. AIM To study the molecular mechanism of AD induced by triazine herbicides. METHODS Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of AD patients and controls were identified. The intersectional targets of ATR, SIM, and PRO for possible associations with AD were screened through network pharmacology and used for gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis. The binding potentials between the core targets and herbicides were validated by molecular docking and molecular dynamics. RESULTS A total of 1,062 DEGs were screened between the AD patients and controls, which identified 148 intersectional targets of herbicides causing AD that were screened by network pharmacology analysis. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that cell cycling and cellular senescence were important signalling pathways. Finally, the core targets EGFR, FN1, and TYMS were screened and validated by molecular docking and molecular dynamics. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that combined exposure to triazine herbicides might promote the development of AD, thereby providing new insights for the prevention of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianan Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, College of Public Health, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Ling Qi
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, College of Public Health, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Yuxin Chen
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, College of Public Health, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Haoming Lv
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, College of Public Health, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Haoran Bi
- Department of Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
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Yuan L, Chai Y, Li C, Liu R, Chen Z, Li L, Li W, He Y. Dissipation, residue, dietary, and ecological risk assessment of atrazine in apples, grapes, tea, and their soil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:35064-35072. [PMID: 33661496 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-13133-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Atrazine is one of the most used herbicides in China. It is a persistent organic pollutant but has been widely used on Chinese farmlands for a long time. To assess its dietary and ecological risks to human and environment, in this study, atrazine residues were extracted with acetonitrile and then plant samples were detected with gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and soil samples were determined with gas chromatography coupled with nitrogen-phosphorus detector (GC-NPD). The limit of quantification (LOQ) of the method was 0.01 mg/kg for all matrices. The recoveries ranged from 82.0 to 105.4% for plant samples and 75.6 to 85.6% for soil samples. The final residues of atrazine in all plant samples were lower than LOQ. Dietary risk assessment suggested that under good agricultural practices (GAP) conditions, intake of atrazine from apples, grapes, and tea would exhibit an acceptably low health risk on consumers. However, the final residues of atrazine in soil samples were <0.01-9.2 mg/kg, and the half-lives were 2.0-9.1 days. Based on the species sensitivity distribution (SSD) model, the potential affected fraction (PAF) of atrazine in soil samples ranges from 0.01 to 65.8%. Atrazine residues in 43.1% soil samples were higher than 0.11 mg/kg, which was the hazardous concentration for 5% of species (HC5) of atrazine in soil. These results suggested that the ecological risks of atrazine in apples, grapes, and tea garden soil would exhibit a high risk on environmental species even under the same GAP conditions. This study could provide guidance for comprehensive risk assessment of atrazine properly used in apple, grape, and tea gardens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longfei Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Yida Chai
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- School of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434025, China
| | - Congdi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, China
| | - Rong Liu
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Zenglong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Li Li
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Wei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yujian He
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, China.
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Thorson JLM, Beck D, Ben Maamar M, Nilsson EE, McBirney M, Skinner MK. Epigenome-wide association study for atrazine induced transgenerational DNA methylation and histone retention sperm epigenetic biomarkers for disease. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0239380. [PMID: 33326428 PMCID: PMC7743986 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrazine is a common agricultural herbicide previously shown to promote epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of disease to subsequent generations. The current study was designed as an epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) to identify transgenerational sperm disease associated differential DNA methylation regions (DMRs) and differential histone retention regions (DHRs). Gestating female F0 generation rats were transiently exposed to atrazine during the period of embryonic gonadal sex determination, and then subsequent F1, F2, and F3 generations obtained in the absence of any continued exposure. The transgenerational F3 generation males were assessed for disease and sperm collected for epigenetic analysis. Pathology was observed in pubertal onset and for testis disease, prostate disease, kidney disease, lean pathology, and multiple disease. For these pathologies, sufficient numbers of individual males with only a single specific disease were identified. The sperm DNA and chromatin were isolated from adult one-year animals with the specific diseases and analyzed for DMRs with methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) sequencing and DHRs with histone chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) sequencing. Transgenerational F3 generation males with or without disease were compared to identify the disease specific epimutation biomarkers. All pathologies were found to have disease specific DMRs and DHRs which were found to predominantly be distinct for each disease. No common DMRs or DHRs were found among all the pathologies. Epimutation gene associations were identified and found to correlate to previously known disease linked genes. This is one of the first observations of potential sperm disease biomarkers for histone retention sites. Although further studies with expanded animal numbers are required, the current study provides evidence the EWAS analysis is effective for the identification of potential pathology epimutation biomarkers for disease susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. M. Thorson
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Daniel Beck
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Millissia Ben Maamar
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Eric E. Nilsson
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Margaux McBirney
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Michael K. Skinner
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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