Liver fatty acid binding protein gene-ablation exacerbates weight gain in high-fat fed female mice

The effects of Dendrobium species on the metabolic syndrome: A review

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is known as a global health challenge with different types of health conditions such as hypertension, hyperglycemia, the increasing prevalence of obesity, and hyperlipidemia. Despite much recent scientific progress, the use of traditional herbal medicines with fewer side effects is increasing worldwide. Dendrobium, the second-largest orchid genus, has been used as a natural source of drugs for the treatment of MetS. The beneficial effects of Dendrobium, including anti-hypertension, anti-hyperglycemia, anti-obesity, and anti-hyperlipidemic against MetS have been shown in the scientific evidence. The anti-oxidant and lipid-lowering effects of Dendrobium modulate hyperlipidemia via reducing lipid accumulation and maintaining lipid metabolism. Restoring pancreatic beta cells and regulating the insulin signaling pathway are involved in its antidiabetic properties. The hypotensive effects contribute to increasing nitric oxide (NO) generation and inhibiting extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. More research projects, especially clinical trials, are needed to investigate the safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of Dendrobium in patients. This review article provides, for the first time, comprehensive information about the efficacy of different species of Dendrobium. The described species can be a source of medicines for the treatment of MetS, which are reported in various evidence.

Attenuation of metabolic syndrome in the ob/ob mouse model by resistant starch intervention is dose dependent

The effect of different RS concentrations on the morphology of colon (A), liver (B) and adipose tissue (C).

Ablating both Fabp1 and Scp2/Scpx (TKO) induces hepatic phospholipid and cholesterol accumulation in high fat-fed mice

Although singly ablating Fabp1 or Scp2/Scpx genes may exacerbate the impact of high fat diet (HFD) on whole body phenotype and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), concomitant upregulation of the non-ablated gene, preference for ad libitum fed HFD, and sex differences complicate interpretation. Therefore, these issues were addressed in male and female mice ablated in both genes (Fabp1/Scp2/Scpx null or TKO) and pair-fed HFD. Wild-type (WT) males gained more body weight as fat tissue mass (FTM) and exhibited higher hepatic lipid accumulation than WT females. The greater hepatic lipid accumulation in WT males was associated with higher hepatic expression of enzymes in glyceride synthesis, higher hepatic bile acids, and upregulation of transporters involved in hepatic reuptake of serum bile acids. While TKO had little effect on whole body phenotype and hepatic bile acid accumulation in either sex, TKO increased hepatic accumulation of lipids in both, specifically phospholipid and cholesteryl esters in males and females and free cholesterol in females. TKO-induced increases in glycerides were attributed not only to complete loss of FABP1, SCP2 and SCPx, but also in part to sex-dependent upregulation of hepatic lipogenic enzymes. These data with WT and TKO mice pair-fed HFD indicate that: i) Sex significantly impacted the ability of HFD to increase body weight, induce hepatic lipid accumulation and increase hepatic bile acids; and ii) TKO exacerbated the HFD ability to induce hepatic lipid accumulation, regardless of sex, but did not significantly alter whole body phenotype in either sex.

Does the enterolactone (ENL) affect fatty acid transporters and lipid metabolism in liver?

BACKGROUND

NAFLD as a result of inappropriate diet and obesity, may progress to sever conditions such as: type 2 diabetes mellitus or steatohepatitis, and has recently become a prevalent topic of numerous investigations. Due to its dangerous aftermaths, finding new substances, such as polyphenols and their derivatives, which might reduce liver steatosis is the main target of research into NAFLD treatment. Hence, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect(s) of enterolactone (ENL), a metabolite of secoisolariciresinol (SECO), on lipid metabolism together with changes in the expression of fatty acid transporters in fatty liver.

METHODS

The experiments were conducted on HepG2 cells incubated with either ENL and/or palmitic acid during 16 h exposure. The expression of selected fatty acid transport proteins: FATP2, FATP5, CD36, FABPpm, ABCA1, MTP, ACBP and L-FABP, as well as the proteins directly involved in lipogenesis (FAS), oxidation pathway (CPT 1), and lipid metabolism (PPARα, LXR, SREBP1c, pAMPK) was estimated by Western Blot. Intra and extracellular lipid contents were assessed by Gas-Liquid Chromatography. The data was analyzed with two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and results were considered to be statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05.

RESULTS

ENL stimulated extracellular efflux of free fatty acids (FFA) and triacylglicerols (TAG) to the medium, while, it had no influence on FATP-family mediated intracellular fatty acid uptake. Moreover, ENL decreased the expression of CPT 1, pAMPK, PPARα, increased SREBP1c and had no effect on LXR, and FAS content.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of our study demonstrate that ENL had opposite effect on liver steatosis in comparison with other polyphenols what suggests that it may be an inactive metabolite. ENL did not affect significantly the intracellular accumulation of FFA, DAG and TAG, yet it promoted their extracellular efflux. Furthermore, it inhibited ß-oxydation and intracellular lipid metabolism what may contribute to the progression of NAFLD.

Loss of fatty acid binding protein-1 alters the hepatic endocannabinoid system response to a high-fat diet

Upregulation of the hepatic endocannabinoid (EC) receptor [cannabinoid receptor-1 (CB1)] and arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA) is associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Male mice fed high-fat diet (HFD) ad libitum also exhibit NAFLD, increased hepatic AEA, and obesity. But, preference for HFD complicates interpretation and almost nothing is known about these effects in females. These issues were addressed by pair-feeding HFD. Similarly to ad libitum-fed HFD, pair-fed HFD also increased WT male and female mouse fat tissue mass (FTM), but preferentially at the expense of lean tissue mass. In contrast, pair-fed HFD did not elicit NAFLD in WT mice regardless of sex. Concomitantly, pair-fed HFD oppositely impacted hepatic AEA, 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, and/or CB1 in WT males versus females. In pair-fed HFD mice, liver FA binding protein-1 (Fabp1) gene ablation (LKO): i) exacerbated FTM in both sexes; ii) did not elicit liver neutral lipid accumulation in males and only slightly in females; iii) increased liver AEA in males, but decreased it in females; and iv) decreased CB1 only in males. Thus, pair-fed HFD selectively impacted hepatic ECs more in females, but did not elicit NAFLD in either sex. These effects were modified by LKO consistent with FABP1's ability to impact EC and FA metabolism.

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. alkaloids regulate metabolism gene expression in livers of mice

Objectives

In our previous studies, Dendrobium nobile Lindl. alkaloids (DNLA) has been shown to have glucose-lowering and antihyperlipidaemia effects in diabetic rats, in rats fed with high-fat diets, and in mice challenged with adrenaline. This study aimed to examine the effects of DNLA on the expression of glucose and lipid metabolism genes in livers of mice.

Methods

Mice were given DNLA at doses of 10–80 mg/kg, po for 8 days, and livers were removed for total RNA and protein isolation to perform real-time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis.

Key findings

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. alkaloids increased PGC1α at mRNA and protein levels and increased glucose metabolism gene Glut2 and FoxO1 expression. DNLA also increased the expression of fatty acid β-oxidation genes Acox1 and Cpt1a. The lipid synthesis regulator Srebp1 (sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1) was decreased, while the lipolysis gene ATGL was increased. Interestingly, DNLA increased the expression of antioxidant gene metallothionein-1 and NADPH quinone oxidoreductase-1 (Nqo1) in livers of mice. Western blot on selected proteins confirmed these changes including the increased expression of GLUT4 and PPARα.

Conclusions

DNLA has beneficial effects on liver glucose and lipid metabolism gene expressions, and enhances the Nrf2-antioxidant pathway gene expressions, which could play integrated roles in regulating metabolic disorders.

Silencing of FABP1 ameliorates hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress in mice with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is increasing in prevalence worldwide and has been identified as a risk factor for cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. However, there is no effective pharmacologic treatment for NAFLD. FABP1 is a liver‐specific fatty acid‐binding protein (FABP) that plays important roles in intracellular lipid metabolism in the liver. We investigated the effect of repression of FABP1 expression on NAFLD, using adenovirus‐mediated silencing of FABP1. FABP1 knockdown in the liver decreased the liver weight and hepatic triglyceride (TG) accumulation. The expression of inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in the liver was also reduced. The level of thiobarbituric acid‐reactive substances, a marker of lipid peroxidation, in the liver of FABP1 knockdown mice was significantly decreased. These results suggest that FABP1 reduction in the liver is an effective approach against NAFLD.

Fabp1 gene ablation inhibits high-fat diet-induced increase in brain endocannabinoids

The endocannabinoid system shifts energy balance toward storage and fat accumulation, especially in the context of diet-induced obesity. Relatively little is known about factors outside the central nervous system that may mediate the effect of high-fat diet (HFD) on brain endocannabinoid levels. One candidate is the liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1), a cytosolic protein highly prevalent in liver, but not detected in brain, which facilitates hepatic clearance of fatty acids. The impact of Fabp1 gene ablation (LKO) on the effect of high-fat diet (HFD) on brain and plasma endocannabinoid levels was examined and data expressed for each parameter as the ratio of high-fat diet/control diet. In male wild-type mice, HFD markedly increased brain N-acylethanolamides, but not 2-monoacylglycerols. LKO blocked these effects of HFD in male mice. In female wild-type mice, HFD slightly decreased or did not alter these endocannabinoids as compared with male wild type. LKO did not block the HFD effects in female mice. The HFD-induced increase in brain arachidonic acid-derived arachidonoylethanolamide in males correlated with increased brain-free and total arachidonic acid. The ability of LKO to block the HFD-induced increase in brain arachidonoylethanolamide correlated with reduced ability of HFD to increase brain-free and total arachidonic acid in males. In females, brain-free and total arachidonic acid levels were much less affected by either HFD or LKO in the context of HFD. These data showed that LKO markedly diminished the impact of HFD on brain endocannabinoid levels, especially in male mice.

New Role of Hispidulin in Lipid Metabolism: PPARα Activator

Hispidulin is a naturally occurring flavonoid isolated from a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, Saussurea involucrata. In this study, the regulating role of hispidulin on the mRNA expression level of enzymes involved in lipid metabolism was examined in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, the in vivo lipid-modulating effect of hispidulin was compared with that of fenofibrate, a classical PPARα agonist. Our results in present study demonstrated that hispidulin can directly bind to and activate PPARα as an agonist and thus modulate the downstream lipid-metabolizing genes. Moreover, hispidulin could attenuate dyslipidemia in high fat diet induced dyslipidemia rat model. Although further studies are needed, this study provided evidence for the potential use of hispidulin in dyslipidemia management.

Female Mice are Resistant to Fabp1 Gene Ablation-Induced Alterations in Brain Endocannabinoid Levels

Although liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1, L-FABP) is not detectable in the brain, Fabp1 gene ablation (LKO) markedly increases endocannabinoids (EC) in brains of male mice. Since the brain EC system of females differs significantly from that of males, it was important to determine if LKO differently impacted the brain EC system. LKO did not alter brain levels of arachidonic acid (ARA)-containing EC, i.e. arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), but decreased non-ARA-containing N-acylethanolamides (OEA, PEA) and 2-oleoylglycerol (2-OG) that potentiate the actions of AEA and 2-AG. These changes in brain potentiating EC levels were not associated with: (1) a net decrease in levels of brain membrane proteins associated with fatty acid uptake and EC synthesis; (2) a net increase in brain protein levels of cytosolic EC chaperones and enzymes in EC degradation; or (3) increased brain protein levels of EC receptors (CB1, TRVP1). Instead, the reduced or opposite responsiveness of female brain EC levels to loss of FABP1 (LKO) correlated with intrinsically lower FABP1 level in livers of WT females than males. These data show that female mouse brain endocannabinoid levels were unchanged (AEA, 2-AG) or decreased (OEA, PEA, 2-OG) by complete loss of FABP1 (LKO).

Phenotypic divergence in two lines of L-Fabp-/- mice reflects substrain differences and environmental modifiers

Phenotypic divergence in diet-induced obesity (DIO) and hepatic steatosis has been reported in two independently generated lines of L-Fabp(-/-) mice [New Jersey (NJ) L-Fabp(-/-) vs. Washington University (WU) L-Fabp(-/-) mice]. We performed side-by-side studies to examine differences between the lines and investigate the role of genetic background, intestinal microbiota, sex, and diet in the divergent phenotypes. Fasting-induced steatosis was attenuated in both L-Fabp(-/-) lines compared with C57BL/6J controls, with restoration of hepatic triglyceride levels following adenoviral L-Fabp rescue. Both lines were protected against DIO after high-saturated-fat diet feeding. Hepatic steatosis was attenuated in WU but not NJ L-Fabp(-/-) mice, although this difference between the lines disappeared upon antibiotic treatment and cohousing. In contrast, there was phenotypic divergence in L-Fabp(-/-) mice fed a high cocoa butter fat diet, with WU L-Fabp(-/-) mice, but not NJ L-Fabp(-/-) mice, showing protection against both DIO and hepatic steatosis, with some sex-dependent (female > male) differences. Dense mapping revealed no evidence of unintended targeting, duplications, or deletions surrounding the Fabp1 locus in either line and only minor differences in mRNA expression of genes located near the targeted allele. However, a C57BL/6 substrain screen showed that the NJ L-Fabp(-/-) line contains ∼40% C57BL/6N genomic DNA, despite reports that these mice were backcrossed six generations. Overall, these findings suggest that some of the phenotypic divergence between the two L-Fabp(-/-) lines may reflect unanticipated differences in genetic background, underscoring the importance of genetic background in phenotypic characterization.

Recent insights into the biological functions of liver fatty acid binding protein 1

Over four decades have passed since liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP)1 was first isolated. There are few protein families for which most of the complete tertiary structures, binding properties, and tissue occurrences are described in such detail and yet new functions are being uncovered for this protein. FABP1 is known to be critical for fatty acid uptake and intracellular transport and also has an important role in regulating lipid metabolism and cellular signaling pathways. FABP1 is an important endogenous cytoprotectant, minimizing hepatocyte oxidative damage and interfering with ischemia-reperfusion and other hepatic injuries. The protein may be targeted for metabolic activation through the cross-talk among many transcriptional factors and their activating ligands. Deficiency or malfunction of FABP1 has been reported in several diseases. FABP1 also influences cell proliferation during liver regeneration and may be considered as a prognostic factor for hepatic surgery. FABP1 binds and modulates the action of many molecules such as fatty acids, heme, and other metalloporphyrins. The ability to bind heme is another cytoprotective property and one that deserves closer investigation. The role of FABP1 in substrate availability and in protection from oxidative stress suggests that FABP1 plays a pivotal role during intracellular bacterial/viral infections by reducing inflammation and the adverse effects of starvation (energy deficiency).

Organic anion uptake by hepatocytes

Many of the compounds taken up by the liver are organic anions that circulate tightly bound to protein carriers such as albumin. The fenestrated sinusoidal endothelium of the liver permits these compounds to have access to hepatocytes. Studies to characterize hepatic uptake of organic anions through kinetic analyses, suggested that it was carrier-mediated. Attempts to identify specific transporters by biochemical approaches were largely unsuccessful and were replaced by studies that utilized expression cloning. These studies led to identification of the organic anion transport proteins (oatps), a family of 12 transmembrane domain glycoproteins that have broad and often overlapping substrate specificities. The oatps mediate Na(+)-independent organic anion uptake. Other studies identified a seven transmembrane domain glycoprotein, Na(+)/taurocholate transporting protein (ntcp) as mediating Na(+)-dependent uptake of bile acids as well as other organic anions. Although mutations or deficiencies of specific members of the oatp family have been associated with transport abnormalities, there have been no such reports for ntcp, and its physiologic role remains to be determined, although expression of ntcp in vitro recapitulates the characteristics of Na(+)-dependent bile acid transport that is seen in vivo. Both ntcp and oatps traffic between the cell surface and intracellular vesicular pools. These vesicles move through the cell on microtubules, using the microtubule based motors dynein and kinesins. Factors that regulate this motility are under study and may provide a unique mechanism that can alter the plasma membrane content of these transporters and consequently their accessibility to circulating ligands.

Association of L-FABP T94A and MTP I128T polymorphisms with hyperlipidemia in Chinese subjects

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relation between the L-FABP T94A and MTP I128T polymorphisms and hyperlipidemia in Chinese subjects. We recruited 390 volunteers: 201 hyperlipidemic and 189 healthy volunteers. The L-FABP T94A and MTP I128T polymorphisms were genotyped using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). Anthropometry, lipid profile, and liver function of the subjects were determined. We observed that male carriers of the L-FABP A94 allele had significantly higher body weight (P = 0.012), higher body mass index (BMI) (P = 0.014), and higher plasma triacylglycerol levels (TAG) (P = 0.033) and lower ratios of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) to total cholesterol (TC) (P = 0.008) than T94 homozygotes. The MTP T128 allele was associated with significantly lower serum TC (P < 0.001) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (P < 0.001) levels in males. There was a direct correlation between the MTP T128 allele and a decreased risk of hyperlipidemia after adjusting for body mass index (OR = 0.327, 95 % CI: 0.178-0.600, P < 0.001). In conclusion, both the MTP I128T and the L-FABP T94A polymorphisms can affect serum lipid levels in the Chinese population. The MTP T128 allele offers protection against hyperlipidemia in the Chinese population.

Enterocyte fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs): different functions of liver and intestinal FABPs in the intestine

Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABP) are highly abundant cytosolic proteins that are expressed in most mammalian tissues. In the intestinal enterocyte, both liver- (LFABP; FABP1) and intestinal FABPs (IFABP; FABP2) are expressed. These proteins display high-affinity binding for long-chain fatty acids (FA) and other hydrophobic ligands; thus, they are believed to be involved with uptake and trafficking of lipids in the intestine. In vitro studies have identified differences in ligand-binding stoichiometry and specificity, and in mechanisms of FA transfer to membranes, and it has been hypothesized that LFABP and IFABP have different functions in the enterocyte. Studies directly comparing LFABP- and IFABP-null mice have revealed markedly different phenotypes, indicating that these proteins indeed have different functions in intestinal lipid metabolism and whole body energy homeostasis. In this review, we discuss the evolving knowledge of the functions of LFABP and IFABP in the intestinal enterocyte.

Icariin is a PPARα activator inducing lipid metabolic gene expression in mice

Icariin is effective in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. To understand the effect of icariin on lipid metabolism, effects of icariin on PPARα and its target genes were investigated. Mice were treated orally with icariin at doses of 0, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, or clofibrate (500 mg/kg) for five days. Liver total RNA was isolated and the expressions of PPARα and lipid metabolism genes were examined. PPARα and its marker genes Cyp4a10 and Cyp4a14 were induced 2-4 fold by icariin, and 4-8 fold by clofibrate. The fatty acid (FA) binding and co-activator proteins Fabp1, Fabp4 and Acsl1 were increased 2-fold. The mRNAs of mitochondrial FA β-oxidation enzymes (Cpt1a, Acat1, Acad1 and Hmgcs2) were increased 2-3 fold. The mRNAs of proximal β-oxidation enzymes (Acox1, Ech1, and Ehhadh) were also increased by icariin and clofibrate. The expression of mRNAs for sterol regulatory element-binding factor-1 (Srebf1) and FA synthetase (Fasn) were unaltered by icariin. The lipid lysis genes Lipe and Pnpla2 were increased by icariin and clofibrate. These results indicate that icariin is a novel PPARα agonist, activates lipid metabolism gene expressions in liver, which could be a basis for its lipid-lowering effects and its beneficial effects against diabetes.

Thioredoxin-interacting protein mediates hepatic lipogenesis and inflammation via PRMT1 and PGC-1α regulation in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is strongly associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) regulates the cellular redox state and metabolism and has been linked to many diseases, including diabetes. Therefore, we examined the role of TXNIP in hepatic steatosis in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

Lipogenic and inflammatory proteins produced by hepatocytes treated with palmitic acid (PA) or transfected with TXNIP or Txnip siRNA were measured by Western blotting. Lipid accumulation was assessed using Oil Red O staining. Protein interactions were assessed by immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assay. Hepatic protein levels were measured by Western blotting from wild type or Txnip(-/-) mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or chow diet. Livers from NAFLD patients were compared with normal liver by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

PA increased TXNIP, and inflammatory and lipogenic proteins in both AML12 and H4IIE cells. It also increased the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator-1α (PGC-1α), which mediated the expression of lipogenic markers and lipid accumulation. In addition, PA increased protein arginine methyltransferase-1 (PRMT1) and PRMT1 siRNA abolished the increase in lipogenic markers with PGC-1α. Furthermore, TXNIP interacted with PRMT1 in PA-treated hepatocytes. In vivo, levels of lipogenic proteins, inflammatory molecules, PGC-1α, and PRMT1 were increased in the livers of HFD mice compared with those fed a chow diet, and were ameliorated in HFD Txnip(-/-) mice. Moreover, TXNIP, PRMT1, and PGC-1α were elevated in the livers of human NAFLD patients.

CONCLUSIONS

TXNIP mediates hepatic lipogenesis via PRMT1 and PGC-1α regulation and inflammation in vitro and in vivo, implying that targeting TXNIP and PRMT1 is a potential therapeutic approach for treatment of NAFLD.

Human FABP1 T94A variant impacts fatty acid metabolism and PPAR-α activation in cultured human female hepatocytes

Although human liver fatty acid-binding protein (FABP1) T94A variant has been associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and reduced ability of fenofibrate to lower serum triglycerides (TG) to target levels, molecular events leading to this phenotype are poorly understood. Cultured primary hepatocytes from female human subjects expressing the FABP1 T94A variant exhibited increased neutral lipid (TG, cholesteryl ester) accumulation associated with (1) upregulation of total FABP1, a key protein stimulating mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAM), the rate-limiting enzyme in lipogenesis; (2) increased mRNA expression of key enzymes in lipogenesis (GPAM, LPIN2) in heterozygotes; (3) decreased mRNA expression of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein; (4) increased secretion of ApoB100 but not TG; (5) decreased long-chain fatty acid (LCFA) β-oxidation. TG accumulation was not due to any increase in LCFA uptake, de novo lipogenesis, or the alternate monoacylglycerol O-acyltransferase pathway in lipogenesis. Despite increased expression of total FABP1 mRNA and protein, fenofibrate-mediated FABP1 redistribution to nuclei and ligand-induced peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-α) transcription of LCFA β-oxidative enzymes (carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2, and acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1, palmitoyl) were attenuated in FABP1 T94A hepatocytes. Although the phenotype of FABP1 T94A variant human hepatocytes exhibits some similarities to that of FABP1-null or PPAR-α-null hepatocytes and mice, expression of FABP1 T94A variant did not abolish or reduce ligand binding. Thus the FABP1 T94A variant represents an altered/reduced function mutation resulting in TG accumulation.

Hepatocellular adenoma showing high uptake of (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) via an increased expression of glucose transporter 2 (GLUT-2)

Hepatocellular adenoma (HCA) is a benign liver neoplasm composed of hepatocytes. We experienced HCA demonstrating a high uptake of (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) on positron emission tomography-computed tomography, mimicking a malignant tumor. The mechanism underlying the uptake of FDG has not been identified. Here, we discuss that an enhancement of glucose metabolism via an increased expression of glucose transporter 2 may have a role in the high uptake of FDG shown by HCAs.

Hepatic ATGL mediates PPAR-α signaling and fatty acid channeling through an L-FABP independent mechanism

Adipose TG lipase (ATGL) catalyzes the rate-limiting step in TG hydrolysis in most tissues. We have shown that hepatic ATGL preferentially channels hydrolyzed FAs to β-oxidation and induces PPAR-α signaling. Previous studies have suggested that liver FA binding protein (L-FABP) transports FAs from lipid droplets to the nucleus for ligand delivery and to the mitochondria for β-oxidation. To determine if L-FABP is involved in ATGL-mediated FA channeling, we used adenovirus-mediated suppression or overexpression of hepatic ATGL in either WT or L-FABP KO mice. Hepatic ATGL knockdown increased liver weight and TG content of overnight fasted mice regardless of genotype. L-FABP deletion did not impair the effects of ATGL overexpression on the oxidation of hydrolyzed FAs in primary hepatocyte cultures or on serum β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations in vivo. Moreover, L-FABP deletion did not influence the effects of ATGL knockdown or overexpression on PPAR-α target gene expression. Taken together, we conclude that L-FABP is not required to channel ATGL-hydrolyzed FAs to mitochondria for β-oxidation or the nucleus for PPAR-α regulation.

Recent insights into the molecular pathophysiology of lipid droplet formation in hepatocytes

Triacyglycerols are a major energy reserve of the body and are normally stored in adipose tissue as lipid droplets (LDs). The liver, however, stores energy as glycogen and digested triglycerides in the form of fatty acids. In stressed condition such as obesity, imbalanced nutrition and drug induced liver injury hepatocytes accumulate excess lipids in the form of LDs whose prolonged storage leads to disease conditions most notably non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Fatty liver disease has become a major health burden with more than 90% of obese, nearly 70% of overweight and about 25% of normal weight patients being affected. Notably, research in recent years has shown LD as highly dynamic organelles for maintaining lipid homeostasis through fat storage, protein sorting and other molecular events studied in adipocytes and other cells of living organisms. This review focuses on the molecular events of LD formation in hepatocytes and the importance of cross talk between different cell types and their signalling in NAFLD as to provide a perspective on molecular mechanisms as well as possibilities for different therapeutic intervention strategies.

Direct comparison of mice null for liver or intestinal fatty acid-binding proteins reveals highly divergent phenotypic responses to high fat feeding

The enterocyte expresses two fatty acid-binding proteins (FABP), intestinal FABP (IFABP; FABP2) and liver FABP (LFABP; FABP1). LFABP is also expressed in liver. Despite ligand transport and binding differences, it has remained uncertain whether these intestinally coexpressed proteins, which both bind long chain fatty acids (FA), are functionally distinct. Here, we directly compared IFABP(-/-) and LFABP(-/-) mice fed high fat diets containing long chain saturated or unsaturated fatty acids, reasoning that providing an abundance of dietary lipid would reveal unique functional properties. The results showed that mucosal lipid metabolism was indeed differentially modified, with significant decreases in FA incorporation into triacylglycerol (TG) relative to phospholipid (PL) in IFABP(-/-) mice, whereas LFABP(-/-) mice had reduced monoacylglycerol incorporation in TG relative to PL, as well as reduced FA oxidation. Interestingly, striking differences were found in whole body energy homeostasis; LFABP(-/-) mice fed high fat diets became obese relative to WT, whereas IFABP(-/-) mice displayed an opposite, lean phenotype. Fuel utilization followed adiposity, with LFABP(-/-) mice preferentially utilizing lipids, and IFABP(-/-) mice preferentially metabolizing carbohydrate for energy production. Changes in body weight and fat may arise, in part, from altered food intake; mucosal levels of the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol and arachidonoylethanolamine were elevated in LFABP(-/-), perhaps contributing to increased energy intake. This direct comparison provides evidence that LFABP and IFABP have distinct roles in intestinal lipid metabolism; differential intracellular functions in intestine and in liver, for LFABP(-/-) mice, result in divergent downstream effects at the systemic level.