Nondestructive NMR determination of oil composition in transformed canola seeds

New research development on trans fatty acids in food: Biological effects, analytical methods, formation mechanism, and mitigating measures

The trans fatty acids (TFAs) in food are mainly generated from the ruminant animals (meat and milk) and processed oil or oil products. Excessive intake of TFAs (>1% of total energy intake) caused more than 500,000 deaths from coronary heart disease and increased heart disease risk by 21% and mortality by 28% around the world annually, which will be eliminated in industrially-produced trans fat from the global food supply by 2023. Herein, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological effects, analytical methods, formation and mitigation measures of TFAs in food. Especially, the research progress on the rapid, easy-to-use, and newly validated analytical methods, new formation mechanism, kinetics, possible mitigation mechanism, and new or improved mitigation measures are highlighted. We also offer perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and new directions for future development, which will contribute to the advances in TFAs research.

Comprehensive multiphase NMR spectroscopy of intact ¹³C-labeled seeds

Seeds are complex entities composed of liquids, gels, and solids. NMR spectroscopy is a powerful tool for studying molecular structure but has evolved into two fields, solution and solid state. Comprehensive multiphase (CMP) NMR spectroscopy is capable of liquid-, gel-, and solid-state experiments for studying intact samples where all organic components are studied and differentiated in situ. Herein, intact (13)C-labeled seeds were studied by a variety of 1D/2D (1)H/(13)C experiments. In the mobile phase, an assortment of metabolites in a single (13)C-labeled wheat seed were identified; the gel phase was dominated by triacylglycerides; the semisolid phase was composed largely of carbohydrate biopolymers, and the solid phase was greatly influenced by starchy endosperm signals. Subsequently, the seeds were compared and relative similarities and differences between seed types discussed. This study represents the first application of CMP-NMR to food chemistry and demonstrates its general utility and feasibility for studying intact heterogeneous samples.

In vivo nuclear magnetic resonance metabolite profiling in plant seeds

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has been successfully applied to profile a variety of primary and secondary metabolites in whole intact plant seeds in vivo. The nondestructive nature of NMR spectroscopy allows direct metabolic studies to be performed on the same seed throughout a given physio-logical process or key lifecycle transition, such as dormancy breakage, germination, and early postgerminative growth. Multinuclear NMR is capable of evaluating seed quality by assessing nondestructively nutrient reserves and seed protectants at seed maturity and to further monitor reserve mobilization following germination, which is critical for seedling emergence. In this chapter, we illustrate the use of several in vivo NMR techniques for metabolite profiling in seeds. Importantly, some of these methods have potential for the screening of single seeds or seed populations to identify seedlots with compromised viability either due to developmental problems or as a result of deterioration during prolonged storage.

Quantitative imaging of oil storage in developing crop seeds

In this article, we present a tool which allows the rapid and non-invasive detection and quantitative visualization of lipid in living seeds at a variety of stages using frequency-selected magnetic resonance imaging. The method provides quantitative lipid maps with a resolution close to the cellular level (in-plane 31 microm x 31 microm). The reliability of the method was demonstrated using two contrasting subjects: the barley grain (monocot, 2% oil, highly compartmentalized) and the soybean grain (dicot, 20% oil, economically important oilseed). Steep gradients in local oil storage were defined at the organ- and tissue-specific scales. These gradients were closely coordinated with tissue differentiation and seed maturation, as revealed by electron microscopy and biochemical and gene expression analysis. The method can be used to elucidate similar oil accumulation processes in different tissues/organs, as well as to follow the fate of storage lipids during deposition and subsequent mobilization.

Deterioration of western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don) seeds: protein oxidation and in vivo NMR monitoring of storage oils

Deterioration of conifer seeds during prolonged storage has a negative impact on reforestation and gene conservation efforts. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don) is a species of tremendous value to the forest industry. The seeds of this species are particularly prone to viability losses during long-term storage. Reliable tools to assess losses in seed viability during storage and their underlying causes, as well as the development of methods to prevent storage-related deterioration of seeds are needed by the forest industry. In this work, various imaging methods and biochemical analyses were applied to study deterioration of western redcedar seeds. Seedlots that exhibited poor germination performance, i.e. those that had experienced the greatest losses of viability during prolonged storage, exhibited greater abundance of oxidized proteins, detected by protein oxidation assays, and more pronounced changes in their in vivo (13)C NMR spectra, most likely due to storage oil oxidation. The proportion of oxidized proteins also increased when seeds were subjected to accelerated ageing treatments. Detection of oxidized oils and proteins may constitute a reliable and useful tool for the forest industry.

In situ pulsed-field gradient NMR determination of the size of oil bodies in vegetable seeds. Analysis of the effect of the gradient pulse length

We report a pulsed-field gradient NMR study of the size of the oil bodies in lettuce seeds. The pulsed-field gradient spin-echo method (PFGSE) was applied to measure the self-diffusion coefficient of triacylglycerol molecules (TAG) inside the oil bodies. The confined nature of TAG diffusion is used to determine the size dispersion of the oil bodies. At long diffusion time, we measure a spin-echo attenuation that is related to the form factor of the confining volumes in the reciprocal q space, where q is proportional to the product of the gradient intensity and the length of the pulse gradient. Specific care was taken in analyzing the influence of the gradient pulse length delta on the shape of the PFGSE decay in order to construct the function corresponding to the short gradient pulse approximation (SGP). The SGP model gives an analytical framework for the PFGSE signal that enables the size distribution of the oil bodies to be determined. The SGP function was unambiguously obtained by varying the gradient pulse length delta in order to linearly extrapolate at delta = 0 the SGP limit. In this work, we also consider the Gaussian phase distribution (GPD) assumption that is often used to analyze confined diffusion experiments. Although the GPD assumption is known to be inaccurate in predicting the fine structure of the PFGSE function in q space, we point out that in the present case it can be used to take into account the finite value of delta. A log-normal distribution of the radius values was assumed in simulating the PFGNMR experiments since this type of distribution is observed in vegetable seeds by transmission electronic microscopy. From a practical and experimental standpoint, the NMR measurements reported here require no specific treatment of the seeds and the size of oil bodies is determined "in situ" on seeds poured into the NMR tube.

Seed yields in canola (Brassica napus cv. Karoo) depend on the distance of plants from honeybee apiaries

This research examined the benefits of placing hives of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) in canola (Brassica napus L.) at a density of approximately 1 hive/ha. We tested 3 main hypotheses. First, deploying honeybees increases the yield of seed. Second, that the benefits of honeybee pollination decline the further plants are from an apiary. Third, poorly pollinated plants should channel more resources into larger seeds, whereas plants benefiting from insect pollination should produce more but smaller seeds. The experiment confirmed all 3 hypotheses. Yields of seed increased by more than 20% or by 400 kg/ha, whereas the yield declined in plots located more than 200 m from the apiary. There are several explanations for the increased yield, including an enhanced production of fertile pods and, therefore, more seed, particularly small seed.

Investigation of gamma-irradiated vegetable seeds with high-resolution solid-state 13C NMR

13C solid-state NMR was used to investigate the effects of gamma radiation on vegetable seeds, Pisum sativum and Latuca sativa, at absorbed doses that inhibit their germination. By combining single-pulse excitation and cross-polarization experiments under magic angle spinning, both liquid and solid domains of seeds can be characterized. We showed that the liquid domains, mostly made of triacylglycerols (TAG), of vegetable seeds are not sensitive to radiation. The main structural changes have been observed in the embryonic axes of seeds when the seeds are water-imbibed before irradiation. These results rule out a starting hypothesis concerning the potential role of TAG contained in oil bodies as a potential source of aldehydes that could further react with DNA moiety.

Seed oil composition of Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis (Mart.) Ducke

The chemical composition of the oil extracted from the seeds of Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis (Mart.) Ducke (syn. P. sorbilis) was investigated. Cyanolipids constituted 3% of the total oil from guaraná seeds, whereas acylglycerols accounted for 28%. 1H and 13C NMR analyses indicated that type I cyanolipids (1-cyano-2-hydroxymethylprop-2-ene-1-ol diesters) are present in the oil from P. cupana. GC and GC-MS analysis showed that cis-11-octadecenoic (cis-vaccenic acid) and cis-11-eicosenoic acids were the main FA (30.4 and 38.7%) esterified to the nitrile group. Paullinic acid (7.0%) was also an abundant component. Oleic acid (37.4%) was the dominant fatty acyl chain in the acylglycerols.

Discrimination of 13C NMR signals in solid material with liquid-like behavior presenting residual dipolar proton-proton homonuclear interactions: application on seeds

In this communication, we propose, a modified spin echo fourier transform (SEFT) experiment run under magic angle spinning (MAS) to obtain structural informations of the liquid-like domains inside complex organic materials. It includes a proton-proton dipolar decoupling such as BLEW12 or Lee-Goldburg sequence just after the 180 degrees 13C refocusing pulse and short echo delays are used in order to overcome T(2) relaxation. This very easy implemented sequence allows a clear discrimination among fast relaxing 13C signals between those with a pure liquid-like behavior and those presenting residual proton-proton dipolar coupling. The interests of the sequence, combined with other classical NMR experiments, are illustrated on whole vegetable seeds that represent an example of a complex material.

NMR spectroscopy in drug discovery: tools for combinatorial chemistry, natural products, and metabolism research

NMR spectroscopy has enjoyed many advances recently, and the pace of development shows no signs of slowing. This article focuses on advances that have affected solution-state NMR. These advances fall into three general categories: new experimental techniques (new pulse sequence tools), improved hardware and more powerful software. These advances are allowing NMR to help solve important problems in the field of drug discovery. Their impact is widespread. NMR spectroscopy is now being used to determine protein structures, to monitor ligand-receptor binding, to study diffusion, to analyze mixtures using LC-NMR, to analyze solid-phase synthesis resins and to determine the structures of organic small molecules. NMR spectroscopy can provide both qualitative and quantitative information, and can be used in both routine analytical applications and demanding research applications. The applications described here can benefit numerous disciplines in drug discovery, including natural products research, synthetic medicinal chemistry, metabolism studies, drug production, quality control, rational drug design and combinatorial chemistry.

Purification of a jojoba embryo wax synthase, cloning of its cDNA, and production of high levels of wax in seeds of transgenic arabidopsis

Wax synthase (WS, fatty acyl-coenzyme A [coA]: fatty alcohol acyltransferase) catalyzes the final step in the synthesis of linear esters (waxes) that accumulate in seeds of jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis). We have characterized and partially purified this enzyme from developing jojoba embryos. A protein whose presence correlated with WS activity during chromatographic fractionation was identified and a cDNA encoding that protein was cloned. Seed-specific expression of the cDNA in transgenic Arabidopsis conferred high levels of WS activity on developing embryos from those plants. The WS sequence has significant homology with several Arabidopsis open reading frames of unknown function. Wax production in jojoba requires, in addition to WS, a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (FAR) and an efficient fatty acid elongase system that forms the substrates preferred by the FAR. We have expressed the jojoba WS cDNA in Arabidopsis in combination with cDNAs encoding the jojoba FAR and a beta-ketoacyl-CoA synthase (a component of fatty acid elongase) from Lunaria annua. (13)C-Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of pooled whole seeds from transgenic plants indicated that as many as 49% of the oil molecules in the seeds were waxes. Gas chromatography analysis of transmethylated oil from individual seeds suggested that wax levels may represent up to 70% (by weight) of the oil present in those seeds.