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Neumann Y. A case study of bilingual neurogenic stuttering: Measures of fluency, emotion, and articulation rate. JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS 2024; 107:106385. [PMID: 38065050 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2023.106385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This study explores the features of bilingual neurogenic stuttering and the potential connection between emotion and articulation rate on speech disfluencies. METHOD The participant is a 59-year old, Yiddish-English bilingual male with a moderate non-fluent aphasia. Thirty-two narratives (16 in each language), elicited using cue words, were analyzed for frequency of disfluency, type of disfluency (stuttering vs. non-stuttering-like), word-type (content vs. function), within-word location of disfluency, and occurrence of accessory behaviors. Additionally, the percentage and type of emotion (positive vs. negative) expressed, and articulation rate (fluent syllables spoken/duration of fluent utterances) was assessed. RESULTS Disfluency occurred in each language with approximately equal frequency. The most common stuttering-like disfluencies were repetitions (monosyllabic, sound, and syllable) and prolongations. The most common non-stuttering-like disfluencies were self-correction/revisions, phrase and multisyllabic word repetitions, and pauses (silent and filled). In both languages, disfluencies occurred on both content and function words, but primarily content words, and in any position of the word, although primarily initial position. No accessory behaviors were noted. There was a similar amount of emotion words used in each language although the first acquired language, L1/Yiddish, had an overall more positive tone, and his second acquired language, L2/English, had a more negative tone. Additionally, there was a negative relationship between emotion and the number of disfluencies in L1/Yiddish, and a positive relationship in L2/English. A faster articulation rate was found in his native and more proficient language, Yiddish, than English. There was a negative relationship between articulation rate and the number of disfluencies in L1/Yiddish, and a positive relationship in L2/English. CONCLUSIONS Cross-linguistics differences for emotion and articulation rate demonstrates that these aspects impact on fluency and contributes to the disfluencies in each language. Clinical implications of the study demonstrates the importance of assessment of bilingual (i.e., proficiency and dominance) and fluency features of each language in the diagnostic process and the significance of considering emotional processes and articulation rate as part of a comprehensive intervention plan for acquired stuttering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Neumann
- Associate Professor, Director of the Undergraduate Program in Communication Sciences & Disorders, Department of Linguistics & Communication Disorders, Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30 Kissena Boulevard, Queens, NY 11367, United States.
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Stark Z, Franzen L, Johnson AP. Insights from a dyslexia simulation font: Can we simulate reading struggles of individuals with dyslexia? DYSLEXIA (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2022; 28:228-243. [PMID: 34854169 DOI: 10.1002/dys.1704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Individuals with dyslexia struggle at explaining what it is like to have dyslexia and how they perceive letters and words differently. This led the designer Daniel Britton to create a font that aims to simulate the perceptual experience of how effortful reading can be for individuals with dyslexia (http://danielbritton.info/dyslexia). This font removes forty percent of each character stroke with the aim of increasing reading effort, and in turn empathy and understanding for individuals with dyslexia. However, its efficacy has not yet been empirically tested. In the present study, we compared participants without dyslexia reading texts in the dyslexia simulation font to a group of individuals with dyslexia reading the same texts in Times New Roman font. Results suggest that the simulation font amplifies the struggle of reading, surpassing that experienced by adults with dyslexia-as reflected in increased reading time and overall number of eye movements in the majority of typical readers reading in the simulation font. Future research could compare the performance of the Daniel Britton simulation font against a sample of beginning readers with dyslexia as well as seek to design and empirically test an adapted simulation font with an increased preserved percentage of letter strokes [Correction added on 10 December 2021, after initial online publication. Abstract has been added].
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoey Stark
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Canada
| | - Léon Franzen
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Aaron P Johnson
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Canada
- CRIR/Centre de Réadaptation MAB-Mackay du CIUSSS du Centre-Ouest-de-l'Île-de-Montréal, Montréal, Canada
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Destoky F, Bertels J, Niesen M, Wens V, Vander Ghinst M, Rovai A, Trotta N, Lallier M, De Tiège X, Bourguignon M. The role of reading experience in atypical cortical tracking of speech and speech-in-noise in dyslexia. Neuroimage 2022; 253:119061. [PMID: 35259526 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Dyslexia is a frequent developmental disorder in which reading acquisition is delayed and that is usually associated with difficulties understanding speech in noise. At the neuronal level, children with dyslexia were reported to display abnormal cortical tracking of speech (CTS) at phrasal rate. Here, we aimed to determine if abnormal tracking relates to reduced reading experience, and if it is modulated by the severity of dyslexia or the presence of acoustic noise. We included 26 school-age children with dyslexia, 26 age-matched controls and 26 reading-level matched controls. All were native French speakers. Children's brain activity was recorded with magnetoencephalography while they listened to continuous speech in noiseless and multiple noise conditions. CTS values were compared between groups, conditions and hemispheres, and also within groups, between children with mild and severe dyslexia. Syllabic CTS was significantly reduced in the right superior temporal gyrus in children with dyslexia compared with controls matched for age but not for reading level. Severe dyslexia was characterized by lower rapid automatized naming (RAN) abilities compared with mild dyslexia, and phrasal CTS lateralized to the right hemisphere in children with mild dyslexia and all control groups but not in children with severe dyslexia. Finally, an alteration in phrasal CTS was uncovered in children with dyslexia compared with age-matched controls in babble noise conditions but not in other less challenging listening conditions (non-speech noise or noiseless conditions); no such effect was seen in comparison with reading-level matched controls. Overall, our results confirmed the finding of altered neuronal basis of speech perception in noiseless and babble noise conditions in dyslexia compared with age-matched peers. However, the absence of alteration in comparison with reading-level matched controls demonstrates that such alterations are associated with reduced reading level, suggesting they are merely driven by reduced reading experience rather than a cause of dyslexia. Finally, our result of altered hemispheric lateralization of phrasal CTS in relation with altered RAN abilities in severe dyslexia is in line with a temporal sampling deficit of speech at phrasal rate in dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Destoky
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium.
| | - Julie Bertels
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; Consciousness, Cognition and Computation Group, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Maxime Niesen
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; Service d'ORL et de Chirurgie Cervico-Faciale, ULB-Hôpital Erasme, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels 1070, Belgium
| | - Vincent Wens
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroima ging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Marc Vander Ghinst
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; Service d'ORL et de Chirurgie Cervico-Faciale, ULB-Hôpital Erasme, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels 1070, Belgium
| | - Antonin Rovai
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroima ging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Nicola Trotta
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroima ging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Marie Lallier
- BCBL, Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastian 20009, Spain
| | - Xavier De Tiège
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroima ging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Mathieu Bourguignon
- Laboratoire de Neuroanatomie et Neuroimagerie translationnelles, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 808 Leenik Street, Brussels 1070, Belgium; BCBL, Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastian 20009, Spain; Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, UNI-ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
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Georgiou GK, Cardoso-Martins C, Das JP, Falcón A, Hosokawa M, Inoue T, Li Y, Martinez D, Padakannaya P, Parrila R, Pollo TC, Salha SS, Samantaray S, Shu H, Tanji T, Tibi S, Vieira APA. Cross-language contributions of rapid automatized naming to reading accuracy and fluency in young adults: evidence from eight languages representing different writing systems. JOURNAL OF CULTURAL COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s41809-021-00092-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Christoforou C, Fella A, Leppänen PHT, Georgiou GK, Papadopoulos TC. Fixation-related potentials in naming speed: A combined EEG and eye-tracking study on children with dyslexia. Clin Neurophysiol 2021; 132:2798-2807. [PMID: 34592558 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2021.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We combined electroencephalography (EEG) and eye-tracking recordings to examine the underlying factors elicited during the serial Rapid-Automatized Naming (RAN) task that may differentiate between children with dyslexia (DYS) and chronological age controls (CAC). METHODS Thirty children with DYS and 30 CAC (Mage = 9.79 years; age range 7.6 through 12.1 years) performed a set of serial RAN tasks. We extracted fixation-related potentials (FRPs) under phonologically similar (rime-confound) or visually similar (resembling lowercase letters) and dissimilar (non-confounding and discrete uppercase letters, respectively) control tasks. RESULTS Results revealed significant differences in FRP amplitudes between DYS and CAC groups under the phonologically similar and phonologically non-confounding conditions. No differences were observed in the case of the visual conditions. Moreover, regression analysis showed that the average amplitude of the extracted components significantly predicted RAN performance. CONCLUSION FRPs capture neural components during the serial RAN task informative of differences between DYS and CAC and establish a relationship between neurocognitive processes during serial RAN and dyslexia. SIGNIFICANCE We suggest our approach as a methodological model for the concurrent analysis of neurophysiological and eye-gaze data to decipher the role of RAN in reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoforos Christoforou
- Division of Computer Science, Mathematics and Science, St. John's University, New York, United States.
| | - Argyro Fella
- School of Education, University of Nicosia, Cyprus.
| | | | - George K Georgiou
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Alberta, Canada.
| | - Timothy C Papadopoulos
- Department of Psychology & Center for Applied Neuroscience, University of Cyprus, Cyprus.
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Reis A, Araújo S, Morais IS, Faísca L. Reading and reading-related skills in adults with dyslexia from different orthographic systems: a review and meta-analysis. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2020; 70:339-368. [PMID: 32918699 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-020-00205-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
An individual diagnosed with dyslexia in childhood typically remains dyslexic throughout his/her life. However, the cognitive profile of adults with dyslexia has been less explored than that of children. This meta-analytic study is intended to clarify three questions: (1) To what extent, and in what manner, do adults with reading difficulties (dyslexia) differ from typical adult readers in measures of reading and writing competence and related cognitive skills?; (2) To what extent do speed measures pose a greater challenge than accuracy measures in an adult population that has already had years of print exposure?; and (3) To what extent does orthographic transparency modulate the reading profile of adults with dyslexia? A total of 178 studies comparing adults with dyslexia and matched controls were reviewed. The results showed that adults with dyslexia exhibited poor performance on almost all reading and writing tasks expressed by very large effect sizes (range 1.735 ≤ d ≤ 2.034), except for reading comprehension (d = 0.729). Deficits in reading- and writing-related variables are also present but with a lower expression (range 0.591 ≤ d ≤ 1.295). These difficulties are exacerbated for speed measures, especially for word and pseudoword reading, phonological awareness and orthographic knowledge. Orthographic transparency proved to be a significant moderator of dyslexic deficits in word and pseudoword reading, reading comprehension, spelling and phonological awareness, with the expression of the deficits being weaker on transparent-as opposed to intermediate and opaque-orthographies. Overall, the meta-analysis shows that reading and writing difficulties persist in adulthood and are more pronounced in speed measures. Moreover, symptoms are more severe for reading and writing than they are for measures tapping into the cognitive processes underlying reading skills. Orthographic transparency has a significant effect on the manifestation of dyslexia, with dyslexia symptoms being less marked on transparent orthographies. In addition, phonological awareness seems to be a minor problem in adulthood, especially for transparent orthographies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Reis
- Departamento de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal.
- Center for Biomedical Research - CBMR, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal.
| | - Susana Araújo
- Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês Salomé Morais
- Departamento de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
- Center for Biomedical Research - CBMR, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Luís Faísca
- Departamento de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
- Center for Biomedical Research - CBMR, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
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Moura O, Pereira M, Moreno J, Simões MR. Investigating the double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia in an orthography of intermediate depth. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2020; 70:43-61. [PMID: 32096102 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-020-00190-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the double-deficit hypothesis (DDH) in an orthography of intermediate depth. Eighty-five European Portuguese-speaking children with developmental dyslexia, aged 7 to 12, were tested on measures of phonological awareness (PA), naming speed (NS), reading, and spelling. The results indicated that PA and NS were not significantly correlated, and that NS predicts reading fluency (but not reading accuracy and spelling) beyond what is accounted for by PA. Although the majority of the children with developmental dyslexia have double deficit (62.4%), some children have a single phonological deficit (24.7%) or a single NS deficit (8.2%). Children with a double deficit were not more impaired in reading fluency, reading accuracy, and spelling than both single-deficit subtypes. In conclusion, the findings of the present study are partially consistent with the DDH and provide evidence for the multifactorial model of developmental dyslexia. Implications of the DDH for an orthography of intermediate depth are emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Octávio Moura
- Neuropsychological Assessment and Ageing Processes (NAAP) group from the Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioral Intervention (CINEICC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
- Psychological Assessment and Psychometrics Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Rua do Colégio Novo, 3000-115, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Marcelino Pereira
- Neuropsychological Assessment and Ageing Processes (NAAP) group from the Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioral Intervention (CINEICC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Psychological Assessment and Psychometrics Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Rua do Colégio Novo, 3000-115, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Joana Moreno
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Mário R Simões
- Neuropsychological Assessment and Ageing Processes (NAAP) group from the Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioral Intervention (CINEICC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Psychological Assessment and Psychometrics Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Rua do Colégio Novo, 3000-115, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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Houlis K, Hogben JH, Visser T, Ohan JL, Anderson M, Heath SM. “Zooming in” on orthographic knowledge to clarify the relationship between rapid automatised naming (RAN) and word reading. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Chung KKH, Lo JCM, McBride C. Cognitive-linguistic profiles of Chinese typical-functioning adolescent dyslexics and high-functioning dyslexics. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2018; 68:229-250. [PMID: 30120702 PMCID: PMC6209009 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-018-0165-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Dyslexia is a developmental disability affecting the acquisition of reading and writing skills, and its developmental nature makes longitudinal research of great importance. This study therefore investigated the cognitive-linguistic profiles of the typical-functioning dyslexics and high-functioning dyslexics with longitudinal cohorts of Chinese-speaking adolescents diagnosed with childhood dyslexia. These two dyslexic groups of fifty students (with 25 typical-functioning dyslexics) were assessed in Grade 2 (Time 1) and in Grade 8 (Time 2), whereas 25 typically developing controls were assessed at Time 2. Students were administered measures of phonological awareness, morphological skills, visual-orthographic knowledge, rapid naming, verbal working memory, and literacy skills. Results showed that, at Time 2, both dyslexic groups performed less well than the control group on most of the measures. Deficits in rapid naming were particularly salient in both dyslexic groups. Comparing the two dyslexic groups, the typical-functioning dyslexics had more multiple deficits than the high-functioning dyslexics. Findings highlight the importance of rapid naming deficits as potential universal causes of dyslexia and the utility of targeting visual-orthographic knowledge and morphological skills in supporting the development of dyslexic adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Kien Hoa Chung
- Department of Early Childhood Education, Department of Special Education and Counselling, and Centre for Child and Family Science, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Jason C M Lo
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Catherine McBride
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Gabay Y, Holt LL. Short-term adaptation to sound statistics is unimpaired in developmental dyslexia. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198146. [PMID: 29879142 PMCID: PMC5991687 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Developmental dyslexia is presumed to arise from phonological impairments. Accordingly, people with dyslexia show speech perception deficits taken as indication of impoverished phonological representations. However, the nature of speech perception deficits in those with dyslexia remains elusive. Specifically, there is no agreement as to whether speech perception deficits arise from speech-specific processing impairments, or from general auditory impairments that might be either specific to temporal processing or more general. Recent studies show that general auditory referents such as Long Term Average Spectrum (LTAS, the distribution of acoustic energy across the duration of a sound sequence) affect speech perception. Here we examine the impact of preceding target sounds' LTAS on phoneme categorization to assess the nature of putative general auditory impairments associated with dyslexia. Dyslexic and typical listeners categorized speech targets varying perceptually from /ga/-/da/ preceded by speech and nonspeech tone contexts varying. Results revealed a spectrally contrastive influence of the preceding context LTAS on speech categorization, with a larger magnitude effect for nonspeech compared to speech precursors. Importantly, there was no difference in the presence or magnitude of the effects across dyslexia and control groups. These results demonstrate an aspect of general auditory processing that is spared in dyslexia, available to support phonemic processing when speech is presented in context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafit Gabay
- Department of Special Education, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Lori L. Holt
- Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Psychology, Pittsburgh, United States of America
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