Narcotic bowel syndrome and opioid-induced constipation

Impact of chronic opioid use on acute health care utilization in children with IBD and arthritis: a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Opioid use is non-trivial in children with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and arthritis, and options are limited for pain management. We aimed to determine the impacts of chronic opioid use on acute care utilization in children with both IBD and arthritis in United States.

METHODS

Participants less than 18 years of age with IBD and arthritis, with at least one year of continuous enrollment (no interruption of insurance for at least 1 year) and at least one pharmacy claim in the Truven Health MarketScan Claims and Encounter Database, were included in the study. The primary exposure was chronic opioid use. Chronic opioid users were matched to non-exposed controls. The primary outcome was acute healthcare utilization (total number of emergency department visits and hospitalizations within 12-24 months after the index date). The association between acute care utilization and chronic opioid use was assessed using a multivariable negative binomial regression model.

RESULTS

480 children with IBD and arthritis met inclusion criteria, out of which 59 (12.3%) met the criteria for chronic opioid exposure, and 46 of them had at least one year of follow-up. IRR (incidence rate ratio) of acute healthcare use for patients exposed to chronic opioid use was 1.7 higher than controls. Additionally, public insurance and having a chronic pain condition were independently and significantly associated with greater acute healthcare use.

CONCLUSION

Chronic opioid use was significantly associated with greater acute health care utilization in children with IBD and arthritis than matched unexposed controls. Future investigation is warranted to determine if preferential use of non-opioid therapy for pain control can reduce acute healthcare costs in this population.

Impact of Opioid Use on the Natural History of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Prospective Longitudinal Follow-up Study

BACKGROUND

Opioid use is increasingly prevalent amongst patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), but whether opioids have deleterious effects, or their use is merely linked with more severe disease, is unclear. We conducted a longitudinal follow-up study examining this issue.

METHODS

Data on demographics, gastrointestinal and psychological symptoms, quality of life, and opioid use were recorded at baseline. Data on healthcare use and adverse disease outcomes were obtained from a review of electronic medical records at 12 months. Characteristics at baseline of those using opioids and those who were not were compared, in addition to occurrence of flare, prescription of glucocorticosteroids, treatment escalation, hospitalization, or intestinal resection during the 12 months of follow-up.

RESULTS

Of 1029 eligible participants, 116 (11.3%) were taking opioids at baseline. Medium (odds ratio [OR], 4.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.61-13.6) or high (OR, 8.03; 95% CI, 2.21-29.2) levels of somatoform symptom-reporting and use of antidepressants (OR, 2.54; 95% CI, 1.34-4.84) or glucocorticosteroids (OR, 6.63; 95% CI, 2.26-19.5; P < .01 for all analyses) were independently associated with opioid use. Following multivariate analysis, opioid users were significantly more likely to undergo intestinal resection (hazard ratio,  7.09; 95% CI, 1.63 to 30.9; P = .009), particularly when codeine or dihydrocodeine were excluded (hazard ratio, 42.9; 95% CI, 3.36 to 548; P = .004).

CONCLUSIONS

Opioid use in IBD is associated with psychological comorbidity and increased risk of intestinal resection, particularly in stronger formulations. Future studies should stratify the risk of individual opioids, so that robust prescribing algorithms can be developed and assess whether addressing psychological factors in routine IBD care could be an effective opioid avoidance strategy.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome Is an Independent Risk Factor for Developing Opioid Use Disorder in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

BACKGROUND

Symptoms of IBS can fluctuate even when IBD is in clinical remission. Patients with IBD are at an increased risk of developing opioid addiction. The aim of the study was to determine whether IBS is an independent risk factor for developing opioid addiction and related gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with IBD.

METHODS

We identified patients with Crohn's disease (CD)+IBS and ulcerative colitis (UC) + IBS using TriNetX. The control groups consisted of patients with CD or UC alone without IBS. The main outcome was to compare the risks of receiving oral opioids and developing opioid addiction. A subgroup analysis was performed by selecting patients who were prescribed oral opioids and to compare with those not prescribed opioids. Gastrointestinal symptoms and mortality rates were compared in the cohorts.

RESULTS

Patients with concomitant IBD and IBS were more likely to be prescribed oral opioids (24.6% vs. 17.2% for CD; 20.2% vs. 12.3% for UC, p < 0.0001) and develop opioid dependence or abuse (p < 0.05). The subset of patients who were prescribed opioids are more likely to develop gastroesophageal reflux disease, ileus, constipation, nausea, and vomiting (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

IBS is an independent risk factor for IBD patients to receive opioids and develop opioid addiction.

A Missing Piece of the Puzzle: Patient and Provider Perspectives on Pain Management Needs and Opioid Prescribing in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Care

Background

Recent data have shown high rates of opioid misuse among inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients. We conducted a qualitative study to explore IBD patient and provider perceptions and experiences with pain management and opioid prescribing.

Methods

We conducted a focus group with IBD patients and semistructured interviews with IBD-focused physicians and nurses. We used an inductive approach for analysis and the constant comparison method to develop and refine codes and identify prominent themes. We analyzed interview and focus group data concurrently to triangulate themes.

Results

Nine patients and 10 providers participated. We grouped themes into 3 categories: (1) current practices to manage pain; (2) perceived pain management challenges; and (3) suggestions to optimize pain management. In the first category (current practices), both patients and providers reported building long-term patient-provider relationships and the importance of exploring nonpharmacologic pain management strategies. Patients reported proactively trying remedies infrequently recommended by IBD providers. In the second category (pain management challenges), patients and providers reported concerns about opioid use and having limited options to treat pain safely. Patients discussed chronic pain and having few solutions to manage it. In the third category, providers shared suggestions for improvement such as increasing use of nonpharmacologic pain management strategies and enhancing care coordination.

Conclusions

Despite some common themes between the 2 groups, we identified some pain management needs (eg, addressing chronic pain) that matter to patients but were seldom discussed by IBD providers. Addressing these areas of potential disconnect is essential to optimize pain management safety in IBD care.

Belgian consensus on irritable bowel syndrome

BACKGROUND

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is characterised by recurrent abdominal pain related to defaecation or associated with altered stool frequency or consistency. Despite its prevalence, major uncertainties in the diagnostic and therapeutic management persist in clinical practice.

METHODS

A Delphi consensus was conducted by 20 experts from Belgium, and consisted of literature review and voting process on 78 statements. Grading of recommendations, assessment, development and evaluation criteria were applied to evaluate the quality of evidence. Consensus was defined as > 80 % agreement.

RESULTS

Consensus was reached for 50 statements. The Belgian consensus agreed as to the multifactorial aetiology of IBS. According to the consensus abdominal discomfort also represents a cardinal symptom, while bloating and abdominal distension often coexist. IBS needs subtyping based on stool pattern. The importance of a positive diagnosis, relying on history and clinical examination is underlined, while additional testing should remain limited, except when alarm features are present. Explanation of IBS represents a crucial part of patient management. Lifestyle modification, spasmolytics and water-solube fibres are considered first-line agents. The low FODMAP diet, selected probiotics, cognitive behavioural therapy and specific treatments targeting diarrhoea and constipation are considered appropriate. There is a consensus to restrict faecal microbiota transplantation and gluten-free diet, while other treatments are strongly discouraged.

CONCLUSIONS

A panel of Belgian gastroenterologists summarised the current evidence on the aetiology, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of IBS with attention for the specificities of the Belgian healthcare system.

Opioid-related emergency department visits and hospitalizations among patients with chronic gastrointestinal symptoms and disorders dually enrolled in the Department of Veterans Affairs and Medicare Part D

PURPOSE

We examined the prevalence of, and factors associated with, serious opioid-related adverse drug events (ORADEs) that led to an emergency department (ED) visit or hospitalization among patients with chronic gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and disorders dually enrolled in the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and Medicare Part D.

METHODS

In this retrospective cohort study, we used linked national patient-level data (April 1, 2011, to October 31, 2014) from the VA and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services to identify serious ORADEs among dually enrolled veterans with a chronic GI symptom or disorder. Outcome measures included serious ORADEs, defined as an ED visit attributed to an ORADE or a hospitalization where the principal or secondary reason for admission involved an opioid. We used multiple logistic regression models to determine factors independently associated with a serious ORADE.

RESULTS

We identified 3,430 veterans who had a chronic GI symptom or disorder; were dually enrolled in the VA and Medicare Part D; and had a serious ORADE that led to an ED visit, hospitalization, or both. The period prevalence of having a serious ORADE was 2.4% overall and 4.4% among veterans with chronic opioid use (≥90 consecutive days). Veterans with serious ORADEs were more likely to be less than 40 years old, male, white, and to have chronic abdominal pain, functional GI disorders, chronic pancreatitis, or Crohn's disease. They were also more likely to have used opioids chronically and at higher daily doses.

CONCLUSION

There may be a considerable burden of serious ORADEs among patients with chronic GI symptoms and disorders. Future quality improvement efforts should target this vulnerable population.

High-Dose Opioid Use Among Veterans with Unexplained Gastrointestinal Symptoms Versus Structural Gastrointestinal Diagnoses

BACKGROUND

In a cohort of Veterans dually enrolled in the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and Medicare Part D, we sought to describe high-dose daily opioid use among Veterans with unexplained gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and structural GI diagnoses and examine factors associated with high-dose use.

METHODS

We used linked national patient-level data from the VA and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). We grouped patients into 3 subsets: those with unexplained GI symptoms (e.g., chronic abdominal pain); structural GI diagnoses (e.g., chronic pancreatitis); and those with a concurrent unexplained GI symptom and structural GI diagnosis. High-dose daily opioid use levels were examined as a binary variable [≥ 100 morphine milligram equivalents (MME)/day] and as an ordinal variable (50-99 MME/day, 100-119 MME/day, or ≥ 120 MME/day).

RESULTS

We identified 141,805 chronic GI patients dually enrolled in VA and Part D. High-dose opioid use was present in 11% of Veterans with unexplained GI symptoms, 10% of Veterans with structural GI diagnoses, and 15% of Veterans in the concurrent GI group. Compared to Veterans with only an unexplained GI symptom or structural diagnosis, concurrent GI patients were more likely to have higher daily opioid doses, more opioid days ≥ 100 MME, and higher risk of chronic use. Factors associated with high-dose use included opioid receipt from both VA and Part D, younger age, and benzodiazepine use.

CONCLUSIONS

A significant subset of chronic GI patients in the VA are high-dose opioid users. Efforts are needed to reduce high-dose use among Veterans with concurrent GI symptoms and diagnoses.

An opioid receptor-independent mechanism underlies motility dysfunction and visceral hyperalgesia in opioid-induced bowel dysfunction

Constipation and abdominal pain are commonly encountered in opioid-induced bowel dysfunction (OBD). The underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood, and treatments are not satisfactory. As patients with OBD often have fecal retention, we aimed to determine whether fecal retention plays a pathogenic role in the development of constipation and abdominal pain in OBD, and if so to investigate the mechanisms. A rodent model of OBD was established by daily morphine treatment at 10 mg/kg for 7 days. Bowel movements, colonic muscle contractility, visceromotor response to colorectal distention, and cell excitability of colon-projecting dorsal root ganglion neurons were determined in rats fed with normal pellet food, or with clear liquid diet. Morphine treatment (Mor) reduced fecal outputs starting on day 1, and caused fecal retention afterward. Compared with controls, Mor rats demonstrated suppressed muscle contractility, increased neuronal excitability, and visceral hypersensitivity. Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and nerve growth factor (NGF) was upregulated in the smooth muscle of the distended colon in Mor rats. However, prevention of fecal retention by feeding rats with clear liquid diet blocked upregulation of COX-2 and NGF, restored muscle contractility, and attenuated visceral hypersensitivity in Mor rats. Moreover, inhibition of COX-2 improved smooth muscle function and fecal outputs, whereas anti-NGF antibody administration attenuated visceral hypersensitivity in Mor rats. Morphine-induced fecal retention is an independent pathogenic factor for motility dysfunction and visceral hypersensitivity in rats with OBD. Liquid diet may have therapeutic potential for OBD by preventing fecal retention-induced mechanotranscription of COX-2 and NGF.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our preclinical study shows that fecal retention is a pathogenic factor in opioid-induced bowel dysfunction, as prevention of fecal retention with liquid diet improved motility and attenuated visceral hyperalgesia in morphine-treated animals by blocking expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and nerve growth factor in the colon.

Increasing Rates of Opioid Prescriptions for Gastrointestinal Diseases in the United States

INTRODUCTION

Pain control is an important management approach for many gastrointestinal conditions. Because of the ongoing opioid crisis, public health efforts have focused on limiting opioid prescriptions. This study examines national opioid prescribing patterns and factors associated with opioid prescriptions for gastrointestinal conditions.

METHODS

We conducted a repeated cross-sectional study using the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey data from 2006 to 2016. The International Classification of Diseases codes were used to identify ambulatory visits with a primary gastrointestinal diagnosis. Data were weighted to calculate national estimates for opioid prescriptions for gastrointestinal disease. Joinpoint regression was used to analyze temporal trends. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine factors associated with opioid prescriptions.

RESULTS

We analyzed 12,170 visits with a primary gastrointestinal diagnosis, representing 351 million visits. The opioid prescription rate for gastrointestinal visits was 10.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] 9.0%-11.2%). Opioid prescription rates for gastrointestinal disease increased by 0.5% per year from 2006 to 2016 (P = 0.04). Prescription rates were highest for chronic pancreatitis (25.1%) and chronic liver disease (13.9%) visits. Seventy-one percent of opioid prescriptions were continuations of an existing prescription. Patient characteristics associated with continued opioid prescriptions included rural location (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.46; 95% CI 1.11-1.93), depression (aOR 1.83; 95% CI 1.33-2.53), and Medicaid insurance (aOR 1.57; 95% CI 1.15-2.13).

DISCUSSION

Opioid prescription rates for gastrointestinal disease visits increased from 2006 to 2016. Our findings suggest an inadequate response to the opioid epidemic by providers managing gastrointestinal conditions. Further clinical interventions are needed to limit opioid use for gastrointestinal disease.(Equation is included in full-text article.).

Insights into the Use of Peripherally Acting μ-Opioid Receptor Antagonists (PAMORAs) in Oncologic Patients: from Scientific Evidence to Real Clinical Practice

OPINION STATEMENT

Management of chronic pain is crucial to improve the quality of life of cancer and palliative care patients. Opioid-based treatments used to control pain can be prolonged over time. Unfortunately, constipation is one of the most disturbing adverse effects of long-term use of opioids. Opioid-induced constipation (OIC) occurs when opioids bind to the specific receptors present in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and can affect any patients receiving chronic opioid therapy, including cancer patients. The limited efficacy of laxatives to treat OIC symptoms prompted the search for new therapeutic strategies. Peripherally acting μ-opioid receptor antagonists (PAMORAs) have recently emerged as new effective drugs for OIC management due to their specific binding to enteric μ-receptors. Little information is available on the use of PAMORAs in real-life practice for OIC treatment in cancer patients. In this paper, a panel of experts specializing in cancer and palliative care pools their clinical experience with PAMORAs in cancer patients presenting OIC and highlights the importance of timing and choice of therapy in achieving prompt OIC management and benefitting patients.

Pain Management in Chronic Pancreatitis: Summary of Clinical Practice, Current Challenges and Potential Contribution of the M-ANNHEIM Classification

Abdominal pain, diarrhea with weight loss, and endocrine insufficiency represent the dominant symptoms of chronic pancreatitis (CP). High intensity of pain and constant pain have been shown to reduce quality of life in CP and may result in disability and increased health resource utilization. Various basic challenges and unanswered questions still exist regarding the treatment of pain in CP. Recently, limited evidence has been gained that early surgery for painful disease might be associated with better treatment results. Thus, timing of pancreatic surgery in painful disease represents a major issue that needs to be clarified in future studies. In this context, surveillance of patients is necessary in clinical practice. It appears that a generally accepted classification of the disease represents a major requirement for inter-institutional comparison of data with future progress in clinical research. Among recently proposed classification systems, the M-ANNHEIM classification system of CP with its recently presented M-ANNHEIM Surgery Score might be a useful tool to picture the course of the disease and to monitor treatment results. Future research is required to clarify the possible role of this system in the management of pain in CP. In the present article, we provide an overview of current status, challenges, and unanswered questions in the treatment of pain in CP, and we demonstrate the potential benefits of the M-ANNHEIM classification system in the management of painful CP.

Efficacy and Safety of Peripherally Acting Mu-Opioid Receptor Antagonists for the Treatment of Opioid-Induced Constipation: A Bayesian Network Meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy and safety of peripherally acting mu-opioid receptor antagonists (PAMORAs) for the treatment of opioid-induced constipation (OIC).

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were searched for OIC therapy comparing PAMORAs with placebo. Both a pairwise and network meta-analysis were performed. The surface under the cumulative ranking area (SUCRA) was used to determine the efficacy and safety of OIC treatment using different PAMORAs.

RESULTS

The primary target outcome was a response that achieves an average of three or more bowel movements (BMs) per week. In the network meta-analysis, four PAMORAs (naldemedine, naloxone, methylnaltrexone, and alvimopan) showed a better BM response than the placebo. Naldemedine was ranked first (odds ratio [OR] = 2.8, 95% credible interval [CrI] = 2-4.5, SUCRA = 89.42%), followed by naloxone (OR = 2.9, 95% CrI = 1.6-5.3, SUCRA = 87.44%), alvimopan (OR = 2.2, 95% CrI = 1.3-3.5, SUCRA = 68.02%), and methylnaltrexone (OR = 1.7, 95% CrI = 1.0-2.8, SUCRA = 46.09%). There were no significant differences in safety found between the PAMORAs and the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that PAMORAs are effective and can be safely used for the treatment of OIC. In network meta-analysis, naldemedine and naloxone appear to be the most effective PAMORAs for the treatment of OIC.

An Approach to the Patient With Chronic Undiagnosed Abdominal Pain

Abdominal pain is a common reason for referral to a gastroenterologist. The workup of patients with chronic abdominal pain can be extremely challenging as clinicians are responsible for determining whether the patient can be observed or treated symptomatically or this abdominal pain heralds a more systemic disease. The differential is typically wide and given the innervation of the abdomen, localization of abdominal pain does not always provide clear insight into the etiology. This review attempts to help the gastroenterologist narrow down that broad differential and focus on key elements of the patient visit. We emphasize the importance of a detailed history from the patient, along with review-specific details of their history and physical examination that can clue one in about the etiology of the abdominal pain. We review the causes of diffuse abdominal pain that may not first be considered along with uncommon causes of localized abdominal pain. We also review the functional causes of abdominal pain and the importance of identifying these disorders, to avoid unnecessary testing that commonly occurs with these patients.

Chronic preoperative opioid use is a risk factor for increased complications, resource use, and costs after cervical fusion

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

As health-care transitions to value-based models, there has been an increased focus on patient factors that can influence peri- and postoperative adverse events, resource use, and costs. Many studies have reported risk factors for systemic complications after cervical fusion, but none have studied chronic opioid therapy (COT) as a risk factor.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to answer the following questions from a large cohort of patients who underwent primary cervical fusion for degenerative pathology: (1) What is the patient profile associated with preoperative COT? (2) Is preoperative COT a risk factor for 90-day systemic complications, emergency department (ED) visits, readmission, and 1-year adverse events? (3) What are the risk factors and 1-year adverse events related to long-term postoperative opioid use? (4) How much did payers reimburse for management of complications and adverse events?

STUDY DESIGN

This is a retrospective review of Humana commercial insurance data (2007-Q3 2015).

PATIENT SAMPLE

The patient sample included 29,101 patients undergoing primary cervical fusion for degenerative pathology.

METHODS

Patients and procedures of interest were included using International Classification of Diseases (ICD) coding. Patients with opioid prescriptions for >6 months before surgery were considered as having preoperative COT. Patients with continued opioid use until 1-year after surgery were considered as long-term users. Descriptive analysis of patient cohorts has been done. Multiple-variable logistic regression analyses adjusting for approach, number of levels of surgery, discharge disposition, and comorbidities were done to answer first three study questions. Reimbursement data from insurers have been reported to answer our fourth study question.

RESULTS

Of the entire cohort, 6,643 (22.8%) had preoperative COT. Preoperative COT was associated with a higher risk of 90-day wound complications (odds ratio [OR] 1.39, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16-1.66), all-cause 90-day ED visits (adjusted OR 1.22, 95% CI: 1.13-1.32), and pain-related ED visits (adjusted OR 1.39, 95% CI: 1.24-1.55). Patients who had preoperative COT were more likely to receive epidural or facet joint injections within 1 year after surgery (adjusted OR 1.68, 95% CI: 1.47-1.92). These patients were also more likely to undergo a repeat cervical fusion within a year than patients who did not have preoperative COT (adjusted OR 1.21, 95% CI: 1.01-1.43). Preoperative COT had a higher likelihood of long-term use after surgery (adjusted OR 4.72, 95% CI: 4.41-5.06). Long-term opioid use after surgery was associated with a higher risk of new-onsetconstipation (adjusted OR 1.34, 95% CI: 1.22-1.48). The risk of complications and adverse events was not found to be significant in patients with <3 months of preoperative opioid use or those who stopped opioids for at least 6 weeks before surgery. The cost of additional resource use for medications, ED visits, constipation, injections, and revision fusion ranged from $623 to $27,360 per patient.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative opioid use among patients who underwent cervical fusion increases complication rates, postoperative opioid usage, health-care resource use, and costs. These risks may be reduced by restricting the duration of preoperative opioid use or weaning off before surgery. Better understanding and management of pain in the preoperative period with judicious use of opioids is critical to enhance outcomes after cervical fusion surgery.

New developments in the treatment of opioid-induced gastrointestinal symptoms

Chronic pain affects a large part of the global population, leading to an increase of opioid use. Opioid-induced constipation (OIC), a highly prevalent adverse effect of opioid use, has a major impact on patients' quality of life. Thanks to the introduction of new drugs for chronic constipation, which can also be used in OIC, and the development of peripherally acting mu-opioid receptor blockers, specifically for use in OIC, therapeutic options have seen major development. This review summarises current and emerging treatment options for OIC based on an extensive bibliographical search. Efficacy data for laxatives, lubiprostone, prucalopride, linaclotide, oxycodone/naloxone combinations, methylnaltrexone, alvimopan, naloxegol, naldemedine, axelopran, and bevenopran in OIC are summarised.

Preoperative Chronic Opioid Therapy: A Risk Factor for Complications, Readmission, Continued Opioid Use and Increased Costs After One- and Two-Level Posterior Lumbar Fusion

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective, economic analysis.

OBJECTIVE

To study patient profile associated with preoperative chronic opioid therapy (COT), and study COT as a risk factor for 90-day complications, emergency department (ED) visits, and readmission after primary one- to two-level posterior lumbar fusion (PLF) for degenerative spine disease. We also evaluated associated costs, risk factors, and adverse events related to long-term postoperative opioid use.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Chronic opioid use is associated with poor outcomes and dependence after spine surgery. Risk factors, complications, readmissions, adverse events, and costs associated with COT in patients undergoing lumbar fusion are not entirely known. As providers look to reduce healthcare costs and improve outcomes, identification of modifiable risk factors is important.

METHODS

Commercial insurance data from 2007 to Q3-2015 was used to study preoperative opioid use in patients undergoing primary one- to two-level PLF. Ninety-day complications, ED visits, readmissions, 1-year adverse events, and associated costs have been described. Multiple-variable regression analyses were done to study preoperative COT patient profile and opioid use as a risk factor for complications and adverse events.

RESULTS

A total of 24,610 patients with a mean age of 65.6 ± 11.5 years were included. Five thousand five hundred (22.3%) patients had documented opioid use for more than 6 months before surgery, and 87.4% of these had continued long-term use postoperatively. On adjusted analysis, preoperative COT was found to be a risk factor for 90-day wound complications, pain diagnoses, ED visits, readmission, and continued use postoperatively. Postspinal fusion long-term opioid users had an increased utilization of epidural/facet joint injections, risk for revision fusion, and increased incidence of new onset constipation within 1 year postsurgery. The cost associated with increase resource use in these patients has been reported.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative COT is a modifiable risk factor for complications, readmission, adverse events, and increased costs after one- or two-level PLF.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

3.

Novel transmitters in brain stem vagal neurocircuitry: new players on the pitch

The last few decades have seen a major increase in the number of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides recognized as playing a role in brain stem neurocircuits, including those involved in homeostatic functions such as stress responsiveness, gastrointestinal motility, feeding, and/or arousal/wakefulness. This minireview will focus on the known physiological role of three of these novel neuropeptides, i.e., apelin, nesfatin-1, and neuropeptide-S, with a special emphasis on their hypothetical roles in vagal signaling related to gastrointestinal motor functions.

Reduction in pain: Is it worth the gain? The effect of opioids on the GI tract

The use of opioid medications for acute and chronic pain has increased significantly in the past 20 years in the United States. Given the high density of opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract, side effects are common in these patients including constipation, dysphagia, bloating, nausea, and vomiting. These side effects, which are experienced by most patients who take opioids, can lead to significant impairment in quality of life. Unlike other side effects from opioids, gastrointestinal side effects do not diminish with continued use, often leading patients to reduce or discontinue their opioid treatment to relieve these side effects. Therefore, physicians must be aware and anticipate potential side effects in patients receiving opioids to ensure appropriate pain management.

Neuromodulators for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders (Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction): A Rome Foundation Working Team Report

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Central neuromodulators (antidepressants, antipsychotics, and other central nervous system-targeted medications) are increasingly used for treatment of functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs), now recognized as disorders of gut-brain interaction. However, the available evidence and guidance for the use of central neuromodulators in these conditions is scanty and incomplete. In this Rome Foundation Working Team report, a multidisciplinary team summarized available research evidence and clinical experience to provide guidance and treatment recommendations.

METHODS

The working team summarized the literature on the pharmacology of central neuromodulators and their effects on gastrointestinal sensorimotor function and conducted an evidence-based review on their use for treating FGID syndromes. Because of the paucity of data for FGIDs, we included data for non-gastrointestinal painful disorders and specific symptoms of pain, nausea, and vomiting. This information was combined into a final document comprising a synthesis of available evidence and recommendations for clinical use guided by the research and clinical experience of the experts on the committee.

RESULTS

The evidence-based review on neuromodulators in FGID, restricted by the limited available controlled trials, was integrated with open-label studies and case series, along with the experience of experts to create recommendations using a consensus (Delphi) approach. Due to the diversity of conditions and complexity of treatment options, specific recommendations were generated for different FGIDs. However, some general recommendations include: (1) low to modest dosages of tricyclic antidepressants provide the most convincing evidence of benefit for treating chronic gastrointestinal pain and painful FGIDs and serotonin noradrenergic reuptake inhibitors can also be recommended, though further studies are needed; (2) augmentation, that is, adding a second treatment (adding quetiapine, aripiprazole, buspirone α2δ ligand agents) is recommended when a single medication is unsuccessful or produces side effects at higher dosages; (3) treatment should be continued for 6-12 months to potentially prevent relapse; and (4) implementation of successful treatment requires effective communication skills to improve patient acceptance and adherence, and to optimize the patient-provider relationship.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on systematic and selectively focused review and the consensus of a multidisciplinary panel, we have provided summary information and guidelines for the use of central neuromodulators in the treatment of chronic gastrointestinal symptoms and FGIDs. Further studies are needed to confirm and refine these recommendations.

Opioid misuse in gastroenterology and non-opioid management of abdominal pain

Opioids were one of the earliest classes of medications used for pain across a variety of conditions, but morbidity and mortality have been increasingly associated with their chronic use. Despite these negative consequences, chronic opioid use is increasing worldwide, with the USA and Canada having the highest rates. Chronic opioid use for noncancer pain can have particularly negative effects in the gastrointestinal and central nervous systems, including opioid-induced constipation, narcotic bowel syndrome, worsening psychopathology and addiction. This Review summarizes the evidence of opioid misuse in gastroenterology, including the lack of evidence of a benefit from these drugs, as well as the risk of harm and negative consequences of opioid use relative to the brain-gut axis. Guidelines for opioid management and alternative pharmacological and nonpharmacological strategies for pain management in patients with gastrointestinal disorders are also discussed. As chronic pain is complex and involves emotional and social factors, a multimodal approach targeting both pain intensity and quality of life is best.

Pharmacological Approach for Managing Pain in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Review Article

Context

Visceral pain is a leading symptom for patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) that affects 10% - 20 % of the world population. Conventional pharmacological treatments to manage IBS-related visceral pain is unsatisfactory. Recently, medications have emerged to treat IBS patients by targeting the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and peripheral nerves to alleviate visceral pain while avoiding adverse effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Several investigational drugs for IBS also target the periphery with minimal CNS effects.

Evidence of Acquisition

In this paper, reputable internet databases from 1960 - 2016 were searched including Pubmed and ClinicalTrials.org, and 97 original articles analyzed. Search was performed based on the following keywords and combinations: irritable bowel syndrome, clinical trial, pain, visceral pain, narcotics, opioid, chloride channel, neuropathy, primary afferent, intestine, microbiota, gut barrier, inflammation, diarrhea, constipation, serotonin, visceral hypersensitivity, nociceptor, sensitization, hyperalgesia.

Results

Certain conventional pain managing drugs do not effectively improve IBS symptoms, including NSAIDs, acetaminophen, aspirin, and various narcotics. Anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs (Benzodiazepines, TCAs, SSRI and SNRI) can attenuate pain in IBS patients with relevant comorbidities. Clonidine, gabapentin and pregabalin can moderately improve IBS symptoms. Lubiprostone relieves constipation predominant IBS (IBS-C) while loperamide improves diarrhea predominant IBS (IBS-D). Alosetron, granisetron and ondansetron can generally treat pain in IBS-D patients, of which alosetron needs to be used with caution due to cardiovascular toxicity. The optimal drugs for managing pain in IBS-D and IBS-C appear to be eluxadoline and linaclotide, respectively, both of which target peripheral GI tract.

Conclusions

Conventional pain managing drugs are in general not suitable for treating IBS pain. Medications that target the GI tract and peripheral nerves have better therapeutic profiles by limiting adverse CNS effects.

Peripherally acting μ-opioid receptor antagonists as treatment options for constipation in noncancer pain patients on chronic opioid therapy

Opioid-induced constipation (OIC), a prevalent and distressing side effect of opioid therapy, does not reliably respond to treatment with conventional laxatives. OIC can be a treatment-limiting adverse event. Recent advances in medications with peripherally acting μ-opioid receptor antagonists, such as methylnaltrexone, naloxegol, and alvimopan, hold promise for treating OIC and thus extending the benefits of opioid analgesia to more chronic pain patients. Peripherally acting μ-opioid receptor antagonists have been clinically tested to improve bowel symptoms without compromise to pain relief, although there are associated side effects, including abdominal pain. Other treatment options include fixed-dose combination products of oxycodone analgesic together with naloxone.

▼Naloxegol for opioid-induced constipation

▼Naloxegol (Moventig-AstraZeneca) is a peripherally acting mu-opioid receptor antagonist licensed for the treatment of opioid-induced constipation in adults who have had an inadequate response to laxative treatment. It was launched in the United Kingdom in October 2015. Here, we review the evidence for naloxegol and consider its place in the management of opioid-induced constipation.

Management of pain in chronic pancreatitis with emphasis on exogenous pancreatic enzymes

One of the most challenging issues arising in patients with chronic pancreatitis is the management of abdominal pain. Many competing theories exist to explain pancreatic pain including ductal hypertension from strictures and stones, increased interstitial pressure from glandular fibrosis, pancreatic neuritis, and ischemia. This clinical problem is superimposed on a background of reduced enzyme secretion and altered feedback mechanisms. Throughout history, investigators have used these theories to devise methods to combat chronic pancreatic pain including: Lifestyle measures, antioxidants, analgesics, administration of exogenous pancreatic enzymes, endoscopic drainage procedures, and surgical drainage and resection procedures. While the value of each modality has been debated over the years, pancreatic enzyme therapy remains a viable option. Enzyme therapy restores active enzymes to the small bowel and targets the altered feedback mechanism that lead to increased pancreatic ductal and tissue pressures, ischemia, and pain. Here, we review the mechanisms and treatments for chronic pancreatic pain with a specific focus on pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy. We also discuss different approaches to overcoming a lack of clinical response update ideas for studies needed to improve the clinical use of pancreatic enzymes to ameliorate pancreatic pain.

The Inflammatory Bowel Disease Specialty Medical Home: A New Model of Patient-centered Care

New models of health care have emerged over the past decade. Accountable care organizations and patient-centered medical homes are designed to improve the patient experience, enhance health care quality, and decrease cost. These models have been developed in the primary care domain and have yet to be tested in specialty care. Certain chronic diseases require principal care by a specialist or health care team. The specialty medical home would provide patient-centered care for specific populations of patients whose health care derives from a single chronic disease. This article defines the parameters for a specialty medical home and provides a specific payer-provider experience for the comprehensive care of an inflammatory bowel disease population.

Safety concerns with long-term opioid use

INTRODUCTION

The benefits of opioid therapy must be balanced by any adverse effects. In recent years, prescription opioids have been increasingly prescribed, but have also been associated with increased abuse, overdose and death.

AREAS COVERED

This review will categorize the common risks of opioid administration. Recognized adverse effects of opioid therapy include constipation, tolerance, endocrinopathies, sleep disorders, cognitive effects, respiratory depression, overdose and addiction. Studies have shown that there is increased risk of overdose and death with higher daily opioid doses, particularly above a morphine equivalent oral daily dose of 100 milligrams. Extended-release/long acting (ER/LA) opioid formulations may be beneficial for the compliant patient, yet may expose a higher risk for abuse if used inappropriately since each tablet carries a larger dose of medication.

EXPERT OPINION

Prospective, controlled one-year trials are needed to establish the efficacy and safety profile of chronic opioid therapy. In addition to the well known side effects of chronic opioid therapy, the influence and serious effect of opioids on sleep and central sleep apnea is only recently being investigated. The lowest possible daily opioid must be used to manage chronic pain, and all clinicians should be cautious in the use of daily morphine equivalent doses above 50-100 milligrams.

Opioid-Induced Constipation Survey in Patients with Chronic Noncancer Pain

Chronic pain patients relying on chronic opioid therapy are often challenged with opioid-induced constipation (OIC), a difficult condition to treat that has a significant psychosocial impact on those who are affected (Bruner et al., J Pain Res, 8, 2015, 289). Unlike other side effects of opioids, OIC does not resolve over time during chronic opioid use, and treatments used for functional constipation often fail to provide adequate symptom relief (Nelson and Camilleri, Therap Adv Gastroenterol, 8, 2015, 206). Estimates of the prevalence of OIC vary. It has been reported that 15% to 90% of opioid users are affected by OIC (Gaertner et al., J Clin Gastroenterol, 49, 2015, 9; Wan et al., Am Health Drug Benefits, 8, 2015, 93; Coyne et al., Clinicoecon Outcomes Res, 6, 2014, 269). In addition, a recent rise in opioid prescriptions by nonpain specialists has contributed to the increase in opioid-related side effects, such as OIC (Nelson and Camilleri, Therap Adv Gastroenterol, 8, 2015, 206; Tuteja et al., Neurogastroenterol Motil, 22, 2010, 424). We conducted a survey on OIC through PainPathways magazine in fall of 2014 and in spring of 2015. Survey results showed the prevalence of depression and the modification of opioid dosage were higher than previously thought. Additionally, we found that discussions with healthcare workers regarding OIC do not take place regularly. Our results re-emphasize the need for a consensus on OIC-specific diagnostic criteria, evidence-based treatment strategies, outcome metrics, and education about OIC for both prescribers and patients to improve clinical outcome as well as patient satisfaction.

Constipation and Botanical Medicines: An Overview

Constipation affects 14% of the adult population globally, mainly women, and significantly impacts on health-related quality of life. The causes of constipation are mainly three: lifestyle related (functional constipation), disease related, and drug induced. Constipation can generate considerable suffering, including abdominal pain and distension, anorexia, and nausea. The value of some therapeutic measures such as increased fluid intake, physical activity, diet rich in fiber, and nutritional supplements recommended for the relief of constipation is still questionable. The treatment of constipation can be carried out not only with traditional drugs but also with herbal medicines or with nutraceuticals, which are used to prevent or treat the disorder. We have reviewed the most common botanical laxatives such as senna, cascara, frangula, aloe, and rhubarb and their use in the treatment of constipation.