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Mensa-Wilmot K. How Physiologic Targets Can Be Distinguished from Drug-Binding Proteins. Mol Pharmacol 2021; 100:1-6. [PMID: 33941662 DOI: 10.1124/molpharm.120.000186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In clinical trials, some drugs owe their effectiveness to off-target activity. This and other observations raise a possibility that many studies identifying targets of drugs are incomplete. If off-target proteins are pharmacologically important, it will be worthwhile to identify them early in the development process to gain a better understanding of the molecular basis of drug action. Herein, we outline a multidisciplinary strategy for systematic identification of physiologic targets of drugs in cells. A drug-binding protein whose genetic disruption yields very similar molecular effects as treatment of cells with the drug may be defined as a physiologic target of the drug. For a drug developed with a rational approach, it is desirable to verify experimentally that a protein used for hit optimization in vitro remains the sole polypeptide recognized by the drug in a cell. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A body of evidence indicates that inactivation of many drug-binding proteins may not cause the pharmacological effects triggered by the drugs. A multidisciplinary cell-based approach can be of great value in identifying the physiologic targets of drugs, including those developed with target-based strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kojo Mensa-Wilmot
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
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2
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Paoletti P, Ellis-Davies GCR, Mourot A. Optical control of neuronal ion channels and receptors. Nat Rev Neurosci 2020; 20:514-532. [PMID: 31289380 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-019-0197-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Light-controllable tools provide powerful means to manipulate and interrogate brain function with relatively low invasiveness and high spatiotemporal precision. Although optogenetic approaches permit neuronal excitation or inhibition at the network level, other technologies, such as optopharmacology (also known as photopharmacology) have emerged that provide molecular-level control by endowing light sensitivity to endogenous biomolecules. In this Review, we discuss the challenges and opportunities of photocontrolling native neuronal signalling pathways, focusing on ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors. We describe existing strategies for rendering receptors and channels light sensitive and provide an overview of the neuroscientific insights gained from such approaches. At the crossroads of chemistry, protein engineering and neuroscience, optopharmacology offers great potential for understanding the molecular basis of brain function and behaviour, with promises for future therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Paoletti
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France.
| | | | - Alexandre Mourot
- Neuroscience Paris Seine-Institut de Biologie Paris Seine (NPS-IBPS), CNRS, INSERM, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
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3
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Shahoei R, Tajkhorshid E. Menthol Binding to the Human α4β2 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Facilitated by Its Strong Partitioning in the Membrane. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:1866-1880. [PMID: 32048843 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.9b10092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
We utilize various computational methodologies to study menthol's interaction with multiple organic phases, a lipid bilayer, and the human α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), the most abundant nAChR in the brain. First, force field parameters developed for menthol are validated in alchemical free energy perturbation simulations to calculate solvation free energies of menthol in water, dodecane, and octanol and compare the results against experimental data. Next, umbrella sampling is used to construct the free energy profile of menthol permeation across a 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) bilayer. The results from a flooding simulation designed to study the water-membrane partitioning of menthol in a POPC lipid bilayer are used to determine the penetration depth and the preferred orientation of menthol in the bilayer. Finally, employing both docking and flooding simulations, menthol is shown to bind to different sites on the human α4β2 nAChR. The most likely binding mode of menthol to a desensitized membrane-embedded α4β2 nAChR is identified to be via a membrane-mediated pathway in which menthol binds to the sites at the lipid-protein interface after partitioning in the membrane. A rare but distinct binding mode in which menthol binds to the extracellular opening of receptor's ion permeation pore is also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rezvan Shahoei
- Department of Physics, NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, and Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Emad Tajkhorshid
- Department of Biochemistry, NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, and Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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4
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Lim B, Lee J, Kim B, Lee R, Park J, Oh D, Gam J, Lee J. Target Identification of a 1,3,4‐Oxadiazin‐5(6
H
)‐One Anticancer Agent via Photoaffinity Labelling. ASIAN J ORG CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ajoc.201900258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bumhee Lim
- College of PharmacyResearch Institute of Pharmaceutical sciencesSeoul National University 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Korea
| | - Jinah Lee
- College of PharmacyResearch Institute of Pharmaceutical sciencesSeoul National University 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Korea
| | - Byungjin Kim
- College of PharmacyResearch Institute of Pharmaceutical sciencesSeoul National University 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Korea
| | - Rang Lee
- College of PharmacyResearch Institute of Pharmaceutical sciencesSeoul National University 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Korea
| | - Jaehyun Park
- College of PharmacyResearch Institute of Pharmaceutical sciencesSeoul National University 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Korea
| | - Dong‐Chan Oh
- College of PharmacyResearch Institute of Pharmaceutical sciencesSeoul National University 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Korea
| | - Jongsik Gam
- Department of Medicinal BioscienceCollege of Interdisciplinary & Creative StudiesKonyang University 2121 Daehak-ro Nonsan, Chungnam 32992 Korea
| | - Jeeyeon Lee
- College of PharmacyResearch Institute of Pharmaceutical sciencesSeoul National University 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Korea
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5
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Yu Z, Chiara DC, Savechenkov PY, Bruzik KS, Cohen JB. A photoreactive analog of allopregnanolone enables identification of steroid-binding sites in a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:7892-7903. [PMID: 30923128 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.007172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Many neuroactive steroids potently and allosterically modulate pentameric ligand-gated ion channels, including GABAA receptors (GABAAR) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Allopregnanolone and its synthetic analog alphaxalone are GABAAR-positive allosteric modulators (PAMs), whereas alphaxalone and most neuroactive steroids are nAChR inhibitors. In this report, we used 11β-(p-azidotetrafluorobenzoyloxy)allopregnanolone (F4N3Bzoxy-AP), a general anesthetic and photoreactive allopregnanolone analog that is a potent GABAAR PAM, to characterize steroid-binding sites in the Torpedo α2βγδ nAChR in its native membrane environment. We found that F4N3Bzoxy-AP (IC50 = 31 μm) is 7-fold more potent than alphaxalone in inhibiting binding of the channel blocker [3H]tenocyclidine to nAChRs in the desensitized state. At 300 μm, neither steroid inhibited binding of [3H]tetracaine, a closed-state selective channel blocker, or of [3H]acetylcholine. Photolabeling identified three distinct [3H]F4N3Bzoxy-AP-binding sites in the nAChR transmembrane domain: 1) in the ion channel, identified by photolabeling in the M2 helices of βVal-261 and δVal-269 (position M2-13'); 2) at the interface between the αM1 and αM4 helices, identified by photolabeling in αM1 (αCys-222/αLeu-223); and 3) at the lipid-protein interface involving γTrp-453 (M4), a residue photolabeled by small lipophilic probes and promegestone, a steroid nAChR antagonist. Photolabeling in the ion channel and αM1 was higher in the nAChR-desensitized state than in the resting state and inhibitable by promegestone. These results directly indicate a steroid-binding site in the nAChR ion channel and identify additional steroid-binding sites also occupied by other lipophilic nAChR antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyi Yu
- From the Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115 and
| | - David C Chiara
- From the Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115 and
| | - Pavel Y Savechenkov
- the Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Karol S Bruzik
- the Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Jonathan B Cohen
- From the Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115 and
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6
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Jack T, Leuenberger M, Ruepp MD, Vernekar SKV, Thompson AJ, Braga-Lagache S, Heller M, Lochner M. Mapping the Orthosteric Binding Site of the Human 5-HT 3 Receptor Using Photo-cross-linking Antagonists. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:438-450. [PMID: 30149702 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The serotonin-gated 5-HT3 receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel. Its location at the synapse in the central and peripheral nervous system has rendered it a prime pharmacological target, for example, for antiemetic drugs that bind with high affinity to the neurotransmitter binding site and prevent the opening of the channel. Advances in structural biology techniques have led to a surge of disclosed three-dimensional receptor structures; however, solving ligand-bound high-resolution 5-HT3 receptor structures has not been achieved to date. Ligand binding poses in the orthosteric binding site have been largely predicted from mutagenesis and docking studies. We report the synthesis of a series of photo-cross-linking compounds whose structures are based on the clinically used antiemetic drug granisetron (Kytril). These displaced [3H]granisetron from the orthosteric binding site with low nanomolar affinities and showed specific photo-cross-linking with the human 5-HT3 receptor. Detailed analysis by protein-MS/MS identified a residue (Met-228) near the tip of binding loop C as the covalent modification site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Jack
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michele Leuenberger
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marc-David Ruepp
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Andrew J. Thompson
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1PD, U.K
| | - Sophie Braga-Lagache
- Department of BioMedical Research, Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Laboratory, University of Bern, Inselspital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Manfred Heller
- Department of BioMedical Research, Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Laboratory, University of Bern, Inselspital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Martin Lochner
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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7
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Yu Z, Cohen JB. Enantiomeric barbiturates bind distinct inter- and intrasubunit binding sites in a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). J Biol Chem 2017; 292:17258-17271. [PMID: 28878016 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.808592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs) are members of the pentameric ligand-gated ion channel superfamily. Drugs acting as positive allosteric modulators of muscle-type α2βγδ nAChRs, of use in treatment of neuromuscular disorders, have been hard to identify. However, identification of nAChR allosteric modulator binding sites has been facilitated by using drugs developed as photoreactive GABAAR modulators. Recently, R-1-methyl-5-allyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirinylphenyl) barbituric acid (R-mTFD-MPAB), an anesthetic and GABAAR potentiator, has been shown to inhibit Torpedo α2βγδ nAChRs, binding in the ion channel and to a γ+-α- subunit interface site similar to its GABAAR intersubunit binding site. In contrast, S-1-methyl-5-propyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirinylphenyl) barbituric acid (S-mTFD-MPPB) acts as a convulsant and GABAAR inhibitor. Photolabeling studies established that S-mTFD-MPPB binds to the same GABAAR intersubunit binding site as R-mTFD-MPAB, but with negative rather than positive energetic coupling to GABA binding. We now show that S-mTFD-MPPB binds with the same state (agonist) dependence as R-mTFD-MPAB within the nAChR ion channel, but it does not bind to the intersubunit binding site. Rather, S-mTFD-MPPB binds to intrasubunit sites within the α and δ subunits, photolabeling αVal-218 (αM1), δPhe-232 (δM1), δThr-274 (δM2), and δIle-288 (δM3). Propofol, a general anesthetic that binds to GABAAR intersubunit sites, inhibited [3H]S-mTFD-MPPB photolabeling of these nAChR intrasubunit binding sites. These results demonstrate that in an nAChR, the subtle difference in structure between S-mTFD-MPPB and R-mTFD-MPAB (chirality; 5-propyl versus 5-allyl) determines selectivity for intra- versus intersubunit sites, in contrast to GABAARs, where this difference affects state dependence of binding to a common site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyi Yu
- From the Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Jonathan B Cohen
- From the Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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8
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Nemecz Á, Prevost MS, Menny A, Corringer PJ. Emerging Molecular Mechanisms of Signal Transduction in Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels. Neuron 2017; 90:452-70. [PMID: 27151638 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Nicotinic acetylcholine, serotonin type 3, γ-amminobutyric acid type A, and glycine receptors are major players of human neuronal communication. They belong to the family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels, sharing a highly conserved modular 3D structure. Recently, high-resolution structures of both open- and closed-pore conformations have been solved for a bacterial, an invertebrate, and a vertebrate receptor in this family. These data suggest that a common gating mechanism occurs, coupling neurotransmitter binding to pore opening, but they also pinpoint significant differences among subtypes. In this Review, we summarize the structural and functional data in light of these gating models and speculate about their mechanistic consequences on ion permeation, pathological mutations, as well as functional regulation by orthosteric and allosteric effectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ákos Nemecz
- Channel-Receptors Unit, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS UMR 3571, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Marie S Prevost
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London and Birkbeck, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Anaïs Menny
- Channel-Receptors Unit, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS UMR 3571, 75015 Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC), Cellule Pasteur, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Pierre-Jean Corringer
- Channel-Receptors Unit, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS UMR 3571, 75015 Paris, France.
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9
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A Novel Lid-Covering Peptide Inhibitor of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors Derived from αD-Conotoxin GeXXA. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15060164. [PMID: 28587231 PMCID: PMC5484114 DOI: 10.3390/md15060164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 05/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) play a fundamental role in nervous signal transmission, therefore various antagonists and agonists are highly desired to explore the structure and function of nAChRs. Recently, a novel dimeric αD-conotoxin GeXXA was identified to inhibit nAChRs by binding at the top surface of the receptors, and the monomeric C-terminal domain (CTD) of αD-GeXXA retains some inhibitory activity. In this study, the internal dimeric N-terminal domain (NTD) of this conopeptide was further investigated. We first developed a regio-selective protection strategy to chemically prepare the anti-parallel dimeric NTD, and found that the isolated NTD part of GeXXA possesses the nAChR-inhibitory activity, the subtype-dependence of which implies a preferred binding of NTD to the β subunits of nAChR. Deletion of the NTD N-terminal residues did not affect the activity of NTD, indicating that the N-terminus is not involved in the interaction with nAChRs. By optimizing the sequence of NTD, we obtained a fully active single-chain cyclic NTD, based on which 4 Arg residues were found to interact with nAChRs. These results demonstrate that the NTD part of αD-GeXXA is a “lid-covering” nAChR inhibitor, displaying a novel inhibitory mechanism distinct from other allosteric ligands of nAChRs.
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10
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Budelier MM, Cheng WWL, Bergdoll L, Chen ZW, Abramson J, Krishnan K, Qian M, Covey DF, Janetka JW, Evers AS. Click Chemistry Reagent for Identification of Sites of Covalent Ligand Incorporation in Integral Membrane Proteins. Anal Chem 2017; 89:2636-2644. [PMID: 28194953 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b05003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Identifying sites of protein-ligand interaction is important for structure-based drug discovery and understanding protein structure-function relationships. Mass spectrometry (MS) has emerged as a useful tool for identifying residues covalently modified by ligands. Current methods use database searches that are dependent on acquiring interpretable fragmentation spectra (MS2) of peptide-ligand adducts. This is problematic for identifying sites of hydrophobic ligand incorporation in integral membrane proteins (IMPs), where poor aqueous solubility and ionization of peptide-ligand adducts and collision-induced adduct loss hinder the acquisition of quality MS2 spectra. To address these issues, we developed a fast ligand identification (FLI) tag that can be attached to any alkyne-containing ligand via Cu(I)-catalyzed cycloaddition. The FLI tag adds charge to increase solubility and ionization, and utilizes stable isotope labeling for MS1 level identification of hydrophobic peptide-ligand adducts. The FLI tag was coupled to an alkyne-containing neurosteroid photolabeling reagent and used to identify peptide-steroid adducts in MS1 spectra via the stable heavy isotope pair. Peptide-steroid adducts were not identified in MS2-based database searches because collision-induced adduct loss was the dominant feature of collision-induced dissociation (CID) fragmentation, but targeted analysis of MS1 pairs using electron transfer dissociation (ETD) markedly reduced adduct loss. Using the FLI tag and ETD, we identified Glu73 as the site of photoincorporation of our neurosteroid ligand in the IMP, mouse voltage-dependent anion channel-1 (mVDAC1), and top-down MS confirmed a single site of photolabeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa M Budelier
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Wayland W L Cheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Lucie Bergdoll
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Zi-Wei Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States.,The Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Jeff Abramson
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States.,The Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine (instem), National Centre for Biological Sciences-Tata Institute of Fundamental Research , Bangalore 560065, Karnataka India
| | - Kathiresan Krishnan
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Mingxing Qian
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Douglas F Covey
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States.,The Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States.,Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - James W Janetka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Alex S Evers
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States.,The Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States.,Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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11
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Jayakar SS, Ang G, Chiara DC, Hamouda AK. Photoaffinity Labeling of Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels: A Proteomic Approach to Identify Allosteric Modulator Binding Sites. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1598:157-197. [PMID: 28508361 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6952-4_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Photoaffinity labeling techniques have been used for decades to identify drug binding sites and to study the structural biology of allosteric transitions in transmembrane proteins including pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGIC). In a typical photoaffinity labeling experiment, to identify drug binding sites, UV light is used to introduce a covalent bond between a photoreactive ligand (which upon irradiation at the appropriate wavelength converts to a reactive intermediate) and amino acid residues that lie within its binding site. Then protein chemistry and peptide microsequencing techniques are used to identify these amino acids within the protein primary sequence. These amino acid residues are located within homology models of the receptor to identify the binding site of the photoreactive probe. Molecular modeling techniques are then used to model the binding of the photoreactive probe within the binding site using docking protocols. Photoaffinity labeling directly identifies amino acids that contribute to drug binding sites regardless of their location within the protein structure and distinguishes them from amino acids that are only involved in the transduction of the conformational changes mediated by the drug, but may not be part of its binding site (such as those identified by mutational studies). Major limitations of photoaffinity labeling include the availability of photoreactive ligands that faithfully mimic the properties of the parent molecule and protein preparations that supply large enough quantities suitable for photoaffinity labeling experiments. When the ligand of interest is not intrinsically photoreactive, chemical modifications to add a photoreactive group to the parent drug, and pharmacological evaluation of these chemical modifications become necessary. With few exceptions, expression and affinity-purification of proteins are required prior to photolabeling. Methods to isolate milligram quantities of highly enriched pLGIC suitable for photoaffinity labeling experiments have been developed. In this chapter, we discuss practical aspects of experimental strategies to identify allosteric modulator binding sites in pLGIC using photoaffinity labeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selwyn S Jayakar
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gordon Ang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - David C Chiara
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ayman K Hamouda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center, Kingsville, TX, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Bryan, TX, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Kingsville, TX, USA.
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12
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Seifert T, Malo M, Lengqvist J, Sihlbom C, Jarho EM, Luthman K. Identification of the Binding Site of Chroman-4-one-Based Sirtuin 2-Selective Inhibitors using Photoaffinity Labeling in Combination with Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J Med Chem 2016; 59:10794-10799. [PMID: 27933951 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Photoaffinity labeling (PAL) was used to identify the binding site of chroman-4-one-based SIRT2-selective inhibitors. The photoactive diazirine 4, a potent SIRT2 inhibitor, was subjected to detailed photochemical characterization. In PAL experiments with SIRT2, a tryptic peptide originating from the covalent attachment of photoactivated 4 was identified. The peptide covers both the active site of SIRT2 and the proposed binding site of chroman-4-one-based inhibitors. A high-power LED was used as source for the monochromatic UV light enabling rapid photoactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Seifert
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, Medicinal Chemistry, University of Gothenburg , Kemivagen 10, SE-41296 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Marcus Malo
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, Medicinal Chemistry, University of Gothenburg , Kemivagen 10, SE-41296 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Johan Lengqvist
- The Proteomics Core Facility, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , SE-41390 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Carina Sihlbom
- The Proteomics Core Facility, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , SE-41390 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Elina M Jarho
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland , P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Kristina Luthman
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, Medicinal Chemistry, University of Gothenburg , Kemivagen 10, SE-41296 Göteborg, Sweden
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13
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Reyes-Parada M, Iturriaga-Vasquez P. The development of novel polypharmacological agents targeting the multiple binding sites of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2016; 11:969-81. [DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2016.1227317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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14
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Caught in the act: multiple binding sites for memantine. Structure 2016; 22:1373-4. [PMID: 25295394 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this issue of Structure, Ulens and colleagues demonstrate how an elegant combination of complementary functional and structural approaches can uncover both binding sites and conformational consequences associated with the Alzheimer's drug memantine binding to an ion channel.
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Hamouda AK, Deba F, Wang ZJ, Cohen JB. Photolabeling a Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) with an (α4)3(β2)2 nAChR-Selective Positive Allosteric Modulator. Mol Pharmacol 2016; 89:575-84. [PMID: 26976945 DOI: 10.1124/mol.116.103341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of nicotinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors (nAChRs) have potential clinical applications in the treatment of nicotine dependence and many neuropsychiatric conditions associated with decreased brain cholinergic activity, and 3-(2-chlorophenyl)-5-(5-methyl-1-(piperidin-4-yl)-1H-pyrrazol-4-yl)isoxazole (CMPI) has been identified as a PAM selective for neuronal nAChRs containing theα4 subunit. In this report, we compare CMPI interactions with low-sensitivity (α4)3(β2)2 and high-sensitivity (α4)2(β2)3 nAChRs, and with muscle-type nAChRs. In addition, we use the intrinsic reactivity of [(3)H]CMPI upon photolysis at 312 nm to identify its binding sites inTorpedonAChRs. Recording fromXenopusoocytes, we found that CMPI potentiated maximally the responses of (α4)3(β2)2nAChR to 10μM ACh (EC10) by 400% and with anEC50of ∼1µM. CMPI produced a left shift of the ACh concentration-response curve without altering ACh efficacy. In contrast, CMPI inhibited (∼35% at 10µM) ACh responses of (α4)2(β2)3nAChRs and fully inhibited human muscle andTorpedonAChRs with IC50values of ∼0.5µM. Upon irradiation at 312 nm, [(3)H]CMPI photoincorporated into eachTorpedo[(α1)2β1γδ] nAChR subunit. Sequencing of peptide fragments isolated from [(3)H]CMPI-photolabeled nAChR subunits established photolabeling of amino acids contributing to the ACh binding sites (αTyr(190),αTyr(198),γTrp(55),γTyr(111),γTyr(117),δTrp(57)) that was fully inhibitable by agonist and lower-efficiency, state-dependent [(3)H]CMPI photolabeling within the ion channel. Our results establish that CMPI is a potent potentiator of nAChRs containing anα4:α4 subunit interface, and that its intrinsic photoreactivy makes it of potential use to identify its binding sites in the (α4)3(β2)2nAChR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman K Hamouda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center, Kingsville, Texas (A.K.H., F.D., Z.-J.W.); and Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (A.K.H., J.B.C.)
| | - Farah Deba
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center, Kingsville, Texas (A.K.H., F.D., Z.-J.W.); and Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (A.K.H., J.B.C.)
| | - Ze-Jun Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center, Kingsville, Texas (A.K.H., F.D., Z.-J.W.); and Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (A.K.H., J.B.C.)
| | - Jonathan B Cohen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center, Kingsville, Texas (A.K.H., F.D., Z.-J.W.); and Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (A.K.H., J.B.C.)
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Admas TH, Bernat V, Heinrich MR, Tschammer N. Development of Photoactivatable Allosteric Modulators for the Chemokine Receptor CXCR3. ChemMedChem 2016; 11:575-84. [PMID: 26880380 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201500573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The CXCR3 receptor, a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), is involved in the regulation and trafficking of various immune cells. CXCR3 antagonists have been proposed to be beneficial for the treatment of a wide range of disorders including but not limited to inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The structure-based design of CXCR3 ligands remains, however, hampered by a lack of structural information describing in detail the interactions between an allosteric ligand and the receptor. We designed and synthesized photoactivatable probes for the structural and functional characterization, using photoaffinity labeling followed by mass spectrometry, of the CXCR3 allosteric binding pocket of AMG 487 and RAMX3, two potent and selective CXCR3 negative allosteric modulators. Photoaffinity labeling is a common approach to elucidate binding modes of small-molecule ligands of GPCRs through the aid of photoactivatable probes that convert to extremely reactive intermediates upon photolysis. The photolabile probe N-[({1-[3-(4-ethoxyphenyl)-4-oxo-3,4-dihydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-2-yl]ethyl}-2-[4-fluoro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-N-{1-[4-(3-(trifluoromethyl)-3H-diazirin-3-yl]benzyl}piperidin-4-yl)methyl]acetamide (10) showed significant labeling of the CXCR3 receptor (80%) in a [(3) H]RAMX3 radioligand displacement assay. Compound 10 will serve as an important tool compound for the detailed investigation of the binding pocket of CXCR3 by mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tizita Haimanot Admas
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schuhstr. 19, 91052, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Viachaslau Bernat
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schuhstr. 19, 91052, Erlangen, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, 3A1, 33458, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - Markus R Heinrich
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schuhstr. 19, 91052, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Nuska Tschammer
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schuhstr. 19, 91052, Erlangen, Germany. .,NanoTemper Technologies GmbH, Flößergasse 4, 81369, München, Germany.
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Mohamed TS, Jayakar SS, Hamouda AK. Orthosteric and Allosteric Ligands of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors for Smoking Cessation. Front Mol Neurosci 2015; 8:71. [PMID: 26635524 PMCID: PMC4658446 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2015.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nicotine addiction, the result of tobacco use, leads to over six million premature deaths world-wide per year, a number that is expected to increase by a third within the next two decades. While more than half of smokers want and attempt to quit, only a small percentage of smokers are able to quit without pharmacological interventions. Therefore, over the past decades, researchers in academia and the pharmaceutical industry have focused their attention on the development of more effective smoking cessation therapies, which is now a growing 1.9 billion dollar market. Because the role of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) in nicotine addiction is well established, nAChR based therapeutics remain the leading strategy for smoking cessation. However, the development of neuronal nAChR drugs that are selective for a nAChR subpopulation is challenging, and only few neuronal nAChR drugs are clinically available. Among the many neuronal nAChR subtypes that have been identified in the brain, the α4β2 subtype is the most abundant and plays a critical role in nicotine addiction. Here, we review the role of neuronal nAChRs, especially the α4β2 subtype, in the development and treatment of nicotine addiction. We also compare available smoking cessation medications and other nAChR orthosteric and allosteric ligands that have been developed with emphasis on the difficulties faced in the development of clinically useful compounds with high nAChR subtype selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasnim S Mohamed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Selwyn S Jayakar
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ayman K Hamouda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center Kingsville, TX, USA ; Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Sciences Center Bryan, TX, USA
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Abstract
Photoaffinity labeling (PAL) using a chemical probe to covalently bind its target in response to activation by light has become a frequently used tool in drug discovery for identifying new drug targets and molecular interactions, and for probing the location and structure of binding sites. Methods to identify the specific target proteins of hit molecules from phenotypic screens are highly valuable in early drug discovery. In this review, we summarize the principles of PAL including probe design and experimental techniques for in vitro and live cell investigations. We emphasize the need to optimize and validate probes and highlight examples of the successful application of PAL across multiple disease areas.
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Direct Pore Binding as a Mechanism for Isoflurane Inhibition of the Pentameric Ligand-gated Ion Channel ELIC. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13833. [PMID: 26346220 PMCID: PMC4561908 DOI: 10.1038/srep13833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) are targets of general anesthetics, but molecular mechanisms underlying anesthetic action remain debatable. We found that ELIC, a pLGIC from Erwinia chrysanthemi, can be functionally inhibited by isoflurane and other anesthetics. Structures of ELIC co-crystallized with isoflurane in the absence or presence of an agonist revealed double isoflurane occupancies inside the pore near T237(6′) and A244(13′). A pore-radius contraction near the extracellular entrance was observed upon isoflurane binding. Electrophysiology measurements with a single-point mutation at position 6′ or 13′ support the notion that binding at these sites renders isoflurane inhibition. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested that isoflurane binding was more stable in the resting than in a desensitized pore conformation. This study presents compelling evidence for a direct pore-binding mechanism of isoflurane inhibition, which has a general implication for inhibitory action of general anesthetics on pLGICs.
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Multiple binding sites in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: An opportunity for polypharmacolgy. Pharmacol Res 2015; 101:9-17. [PMID: 26318763 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2015.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
For decades, the development of selective compounds has been the main goal for chemists and biologists involved in drug discovery. However, diverse lines of evidence indicate that polypharmacological agents, i.e. those that act simultaneously at various protein targets, might show better profiles than selective ligands, regarding both efficacy and side effects. On the other hand, the availability of the crystal structure of different receptors allows a detailed analysis of the main interactions between drugs and receptors in a specific binding site. Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) constitute a large and diverse family of ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs) that, as a product of its modulation, regulate neurotransmitter release, which in turns produce a global neuromodulation of the central nervous system. nAChRs are pentameric protein complexes in such a way that expression of compatible subunits can lead to various receptor assemblies or subtypes. The agonist binding site, located at the extracellular region, exhibits different properties depending on the subunits that conform the receptor. In the last years, it has been recognized that nAChRs could also contain one or more allosteric sites which could bind non-classical nicotinic ligands including several therapeutically useful drugs. The presence of multiple binding sites in nAChRs offers an interesting possibility for the development of novel polypharmacological agents with a wide spectrum of actions.
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Allosteric modulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 97:408-417. [PMID: 26231943 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are receptors for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and are members of the 'Cys-loop' family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs). Acetylcholine binds in the receptor extracellular domain at the interface between two subunits and research has identified a large number of nAChR-selective ligands, including agonists and competitive antagonists, that bind at the same site as acetylcholine (commonly referred to as the orthosteric binding site). In addition, more recent research has identified ligands that are able to modulate nAChR function by binding to sites that are distinct from the binding site for acetylcholine, including sites located in the transmembrane domain. These include positive allosteric modulators (PAMs), negative allosteric modulators (NAMs), silent allosteric modulators (SAMs) and compounds that are able to activate nAChRs via an allosteric binding site (allosteric agonists). Our aim in this article is to review important aspects of the pharmacological diversity of nAChR allosteric modulators and to describe recent evidence aimed at identifying binding sites for allosteric modulators on nAChRs.
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Fuse T, Ikeda I, Kita T, Furutani S, Nakajima H, Matsuda K, Ozoe F, Ozoe Y. Synthesis of photoreactive ivermectin B1a derivatives and their actions on Haemonchus and Bombyx glutamate-gated chloride channels. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 120:82-90. [PMID: 25987225 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2014.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCls) are inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors that are present only in invertebrates such as nematodes and insects. These channels are important targets of insecticidal, acaricidal, and anthelmintic macrolides such as avermectins, ivermectin (IVM), and milbemycins. To identify the amino acid residues that interact with IVM in GluCls, three IVM B1a derivatives with different photoreactive substitutions at C-13 were synthesized in the present study. These derivatives displayed low- or subnanomolar affinity for parasitic nematode (Haemonchus contortus) and silkworm (Bombyx mori) GluCls expressed in COS-1 cells. The derivatives also activated homomeric H. contortus GluCls expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The results indicate that synthesized photoreactive IVM B1a derivatives have superior affinity and functionality for chemically labeling the macrolide-binding site in GluCls. .
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshinori Fuse
- Division of Bioscience and Biotechnology, the United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Izumi Ikeda
- Division of Bioscience and Biotechnology, the United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan; Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan.
| | - Tomo Kita
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan
| | - Shogo Furutani
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Kinki University, Nara 631-8505, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Nakajima
- Division of Bioscience and Biotechnology, the United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan; School of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Matsuda
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Kinki University, Nara 631-8505, Japan
| | - Fumiyo Ozoe
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Ozoe
- Division of Bioscience and Biotechnology, the United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan; Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan.
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Abstract
Allostery is the most direct and efficient way for regulation of biological macromolecule function, ranging from the control of metabolic mechanisms to signal transduction pathways. Allosteric modulators target to allosteric sites, offering distinct advantages compared to orthosteric ligands that target to active sites, such as greater specificity, reduced side effects, and lower toxicity. Allosteric modulators have therefore drawn increasing attention as potential therapeutic drugs in the design and development of new drugs. In recent years, advancements in our understanding of the fundamental principles underlying allostery, coupled with the exploitation of powerful techniques and methods in the field of allostery, provide unprecedented opportunities to discover allosteric proteins, detect and characterize allosteric sites, design and develop novel efficient allosteric drugs, and recapitulate the universal features of allosteric proteins and allosteric modulators. In the present review, we summarize the recent advances in the repertoire of allostery, with a particular focus on the aforementioned allosteric compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoyong Lu
- Department of Pathophysiology, Chemical Biology Division of Shanghai Universities E-Institutes, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao-Tong University School of Medicine (SJTU-SM), Shanghai, China
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