Trillin prevents proliferation and induces apoptosis through inhibiting STAT3 nuclear translocation in hepatoma carcinoma cells

Trillin protects against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity through regulating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway

Doxorubicin (DOX) is widely employed in anticancer therapy, but its clinical application is constrained by its cardiotoxic effects. Trillin, a bioactive compound derived from Trillium tschonoskii Maxim., has been identified as a natural antioxidant possessing cardioprotective properties. This study aimed to ascertain whether trillin can protect against DOX-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC) through its inherent antioxidant capabilities. In vivo studies, C57BL/6 mice were administered DOX (5 mg/kg i.p.) via intraperitoneal injection once weekly for a total of five consecutive weeks and received trillin (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg i.g.) through intragastric administration once daily for six weeks. In vitro studies, H9c2 cardiomyocytes were utilized to verify the protective efficacy of trillin (0.5, 1 and 2 μM) against DIC. Trillin significantly mitigated DOX-induced myocardial damage, which encompassed improvements in left ventricular function, reductions in serum cardiac enzymes levels, and diminution of heart cell vacuolation. Moreover, trillin effectively attenuated DIC while preserving the anticancer efficacy of DOX. Trillin also alleviated oxidative injury by elevating levels of SOD and GSH and reducing MDA levels. Additionally, trillin restored the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 in mouse hearts and H9c2 cardiomyocytes treated with DOX. Trillin safeguarded against DIC by inhibiting oxidative stress via upregulation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. These findings furnish evidence suggesting trillin may serve as a therapeutic agent for the prevention of DIC.

Identification and characterization of PpUGT91BP1 as a trillin synthase from Paris polyphylla

Polyphyllins are the active ingredients of the medicinal plant Paris polyphylla. The biosynthesis of different types of polyphyllins all requires the catalysis of glycosyltransferases. Even though significant efforts have been made to identify PpUGTs capable of catalyzing the initial glycosylation reaction, the specific glycosyltransferases responsible for the synthesis of trillin have not been reported in P. polyphylla. Here, we identified a new trillin synthase, named PpUGT91BP1, which was highly expressed in the rhizome. Importantly, PpUGT91BP1 could specifically glycosylate diosgenin but not pennogenin. To improve its catalytic efficiency, we introduced random mutations through error-prone PCR and conducted an activity-based screening. Three mutants with significantly enhanced trillin synthase activity were identified. Finally, we successfully reconstituted trillin biosynthesis in Nicotiana benthamiana, achieving a yield of 3.69 mg/g of plant dry weight using the mutant PpUGT91BP1. Taken together, our results deepen the understanding of the PpUGT91 family's role in polyphyllin biosynthesis in P. polyphylla, facilitating rational selection of better P. polyphylla cultivars and guiding future studies in the metabolic engineering of polyphllins.

Trillin inhibits MAP3K11/NF-κB/COX-2 signaling pathways through upregulation of miR-145-5p in castration-resistant prostate cancer

Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) presents a significant challenge in treatment following androgen deprivation therapy. This study evaluates Trillin, a compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, for its therapeutic potential against CRPC. Using DU145 and PC3 cell lines and a mouse xenograft model, we demonstrate that Trillin effectively inhibits CRPC cell viability, proliferation, migration, and invasion while promoting apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest. Mechanistic investigations reveal that Trillin disrupts NF-κB/COX-2 signaling by downregulating MAP3K11 and COX-2 and inhibiting the nuclear translocation of NF-κB subunits. Additionally, Trillin enhances the expression of miR-145-5p, further modulating pathways critical for CRPC progression. These findings suggest that Trillin may offer a promising alternative approach for targeting CRPC, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent to improve patient outcomes.

Petroleum ether extract of Elephantopus mollis induces senescence and inhibits invasion in breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells

Elephantopus mollis Kunth H.B et Kunth is an herbal plant employed customarily for the treatment of numerous maladies, notably cancers. Here in this research, we studied the effects of E. mollis (EM) petroleum ether extract (EM-PE) on the highly aggressive breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231. The result from phytochemical analysis demonstrated the presence of tannins and saponins in EM-PE, of which, saponins made up more than 50% of the extract's mass. Cytotoxicity results, which were obtained from MTT assay and microscopic observation, suggested the potential of EM-PE to inhibit the growth of MDA-MB-231 cells with low IC50 value (approximately 30 μg/mL) and remarkably high selectivity index (> 4.78). Further evaluation indicated that EM-PE inhibited MDA-MB-231 cells growth in a dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, we found that EM-PE induced senescence in MDA-MB-231 cells via the activation of senescence-associated β-galactosidase and the transcriptional upregulation of p21 (3.7 times) and p27 (1.4 times). In consistent with this effect, pre-treated cancer cells showed no proliferative recovery after EM-PE removal. In addition, EM-PE could dramatically hinder breast cancer cells invasion (as much as 15.07-fold), which was shown in Transwell invasion assay, together with the decreased transcription of the important metastatic-involved SNAIL1 gene. Overall, our study, for the first time, exhibits the anti-proliferation and anti-invasion effects of EM extract on highly metastasis breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231. Hence, these findings contributed to the knowledge of anti-cancer potential of this herbal plant.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-025-04214-8.

Assessing Therapeutic Value and Side Effects of Key Botanical Compounds for Optimized Medical Treatments

Due to the significance of variable chemical groups across a wide spectrum of modern medicine, it is imperative to determine what is the most widely used group in medical applications with the fewest side effects. Ten compounds from ten chemical groups that are most commonly known for their medical uses were compared in terms of their therapeutic potential and side effects. The comparison among the selected compounds indicated the superiority of the flavonoids over other groups in the multitude of their utilizations and the lower side effects. Kaempferol and quercetin showed higher medical utilization with lower side effects. Whereas alkaloid compounds showed the lowest levels of medical use and the highest levels of side effects. Based on the comparison conducted, it is concluded to give priority to flavonoid compounds being used in medical applications because they exhibit the highest medical uses with the lowest side effects. Within flavonoids, kaempferol and quercetin are the two compounds that are highly recommended to be used in the widest range of medical applications. Serious caution should be considered before applying alkaloids to any medical service. Understanding the characteristics of these compounds can aid in developing safer and more effective treatments for medicinal plants.

Advances in antitumor activity and mechanism of natural steroidal saponins: A review of advances, challenges, and future prospects

BACKGROUND

Cancer, the second leading cause of death worldwide following cardiovascular diseases, presents a formidable challenge in clinical settings due to the extensive toxic side effects associated with primary chemotherapy drugs employed for cancer treatment. Furthermore, the emergence of drug resistance against specific chemotherapeutic agents has further complicated the situation. Consequently, there exists an urgent imperative to investigate novel anticancer drugs. Steroidal saponins, a class of natural compounds, have demonstrated notable antitumor efficacy. Nonetheless, their translation into clinical applications has remained unrealized thus far. In light of this, we conducted a comprehensive systematic review elucidating the antitumor activity, underlying mechanisms, and inherent limitations of steroidal saponins. Additionally, we propose a series of strategic approaches and recommendations to augment the antitumor potential of steroidal saponin compounds, thereby offering prospective insights for their eventual clinical implementation.

PURPOSE

This review summarizes steroidal saponins' antitumor activity, mechanisms, and limitations.

METHODS

The data included in this review are sourced from authoritative databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and others.

RESULTS

A comprehensive summary of over 40 steroidal saponin compounds with proven antitumor activity, including their applicable tumor types and structural characteristics, has been compiled. These steroidal saponins can be primarily classified into five categories: spirostanol, isospirostanol, furostanol, steroidal alkaloids, and cholestanol. The isospirostanol and cholestanol saponins are found to have more potent antitumor activity. The primary antitumor mechanisms of these saponins include tumor cell apoptosis, autophagy induction, inhibition of tumor migration, overcoming drug resistance, and cell cycle arrest. However, steroidal saponins have limitations, such as higher cytotoxicity and lower bioavailability. Furthermore, strategies to address these drawbacks have been proposed.

CONCLUSION

In summary, isospirostanol and cholestanol steroidal saponins demonstrate notable antitumor activity and different structural categories of steroidal saponins exhibit variations in their antitumor signaling pathways. However, the clinical application of steroidal saponins in cancer treatment still faces limitations, and further research and development are necessary to advance their potential in tumor therapy.

Autophagy inhibition mediated by trillin promotes apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells via activation of mTOR/STAT3 signaling

Apoptosis and autophagy have been shown to act cooperatively and antagonistically in self-elimination process. On the one side, apoptosis and autophagy can act as partners to induce cell death in a coordinated or cooperative manner; on the flip side, autophagy acts as an antagonist to block apoptotic cell death by promoting cell survival. Our previous research indicated that trillin could induce apoptosis of PLC/PRF/5 cells, but the effects of trillin on autophagy as well as its functional relationship to apoptosis have not been elucidated. Here, the running study aims to investigate the function and molecular mechanism of trillin on autophagy with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. The objective of this study is to investigate the molecular mechanism of trillin on autophagy in HCC cells. Protein levels of autophagy markers beclin1, LC3B, and p62 were detected by western blotting. 6-Hydroxyflavone and stattic were used to test the role of trillin regulation of autophagy via serine threonine kinase (AKT)/extracellular-regulated protein kinases (ERK) 1/2/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway. Flow cytometry was used to detect caspase 3 activity and apoptosis in PLC/PRF/5 cells treated with trillin for 24 h with or without rapamycin, stattic, and 6-hydroxyflavone. The protein level of autophagy marker beclin1 was decreased, whilst the protein level of p62 was significantly increased by trillin treatment, indicating trillin treatment led to inhibition of autophagy in HCC cells. Trillin treatment could reduce the protein levels of p-AKT and p-ERK1/2, but enhance the protein levels of mTOR and p-mTOR, suggesting that trillin could inhibit AKT/ERK rather than mTOR. The AKT/ERK activator 6-hydroxyflavone could reverse the loss of AKT and ERK1/2 phosphorylation induced by trillin, implying that trillin impairs autophagy through activated mTOR rather than AKT/ERK. STAT3 and p-STAT3 were significantly upregulated by the trillin treatment with an increase in dose from 0 to 50 μM, suggesting that autophagy inhibition is mediated by trillin via activation of STAT3 signaling. The STAT3 inhibitor stattic significantly reversed the increased STAT3 phosphorylation at tyrosine 705 induced by trillin. The mTOR signaling inhibitor rapamycin reversed the trillin-induced mTOR phosphorylation enhancement but exerted no effects on total mTOR levels, suggesting trillin treatment led to inhibition of autophagy in HCC cells through activating mTOR/STAT3 pathway. Furthermore, caspase 3 activities and the total rate of apoptosis were increased by trillin treatment, which was reversed by rapamycin, stattic, and 6-hydroxyflavone, proving that trillin promotes apoptosis via activation of mTOR/STAT3 signaling. Trillin induced autophagy inhibition and promoted apoptosis in PLC/PRF/5 cells via the activation of mTOR/STAT3 signaling. Trillin has the potential to be a viable therapeutic option for HCC treatment.

Steroidal Saponins: Naturally Occurring Compounds as Inhibitors of the Hallmarks of Cancer

Cancer is a global health burden responsible for an exponentially growing number of incidences and mortalities, regardless of the significant advances in its treatment. The identification of the hallmarks of cancer is a major milestone in understanding the mechanisms that drive cancer initiation, development, and progression. In the past, the hallmarks of cancer have been targeted to effectively treat various types of cancers. These conventional cancer drugs have shown significant therapeutic efficacy but continue to impose unfavorable side effects on patients. Naturally derived compounds are being tested in the search for alternative anti-cancer drugs. Steroidal saponins are a group of naturally occurring compounds that primarily exist as secondary metabolites in plant species. Recent studies have suggested that steroidal saponins possess significant anti-cancer capabilities. This review aims to summarize the recent findings on steroidal saponins as inhibitors of the hallmarks of cancer and covers key studies published between the years 2014 and 2024. It is reported that steroidal saponins effectively inhibit the hallmarks of cancer, but poor bioavailability and insufficient preclinical studies limit their utilization.

Inhibiting STAT3 signaling pathway by natural products for cancer prevention and therapy: In vitro and in vivo activity and mechanisms of action

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) plays a critical role in signal transmission from the plasma membrane to the nucleus, regulating the expression of genes involved in essential cell functions and controlling the processes of cell cycle progression and apoptosis. Thus, STAT3 has been elucidated as a promising target for developing anticancer drugs. Many natural products have been reported to inhibit the STAT3 signaling pathway during the past two decades and have exhibited significant anticancer activities in vitro and in vivo. However, there is no FDA-approved STAT3 inhibitor yet. The major mechanisms of these natural product inhibitors of the STAT3 signaling pathway include targeting the upstream regulators of STAT3, directly binding to the STAT3 SH2 domain and inhibiting its activation, inhibiting STAT3 phosphorylation and/or dimerization, and others. In the present review, we have systematically discussed the development of these natural product inhibitors of STAT3 signaling pathway as well as their in vitro and in vivo anticancer activity and mechanisms of action. Outlooks and perspectives on the associated challenges are provided as well.

Study of Saponin Components after Biotransformation of Dioscorea nipponica by Endophytic Fungi C39

This study conducted the solid fermentation process of Dioscorea nipponica using endophytic fungi C39 to determine the changes in the diosgenin concentration. The results revealed that endophytic fungi C39 could effectively biotransform the saponin components in D. nipponica. Moreover, the maximum increase in the diosgenin concentration reached 62.67% in 15 days of solid fermentation. MTT assay results demonstrated that the inhibitory effects of the fermentation drugs on four types of cancer cells (liver cancer cells (HepG2), stomach cancer cells (BGC823), cervical cancer cells (HeLa), and lung cancer cells (A549)) were better than those of the crude drugs obtained from D. nipponica. The chemical composition of the samples obtained before and after the biotransformation of D. nipponica was analyzed by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS. A total of 32 compounds were identified, 21 of which have been reported in Dioscorea saponins and the ChemSpider database and 11 compounds were identified for the first time in D. nipponica. The biotransformation process was inferred based on the variation trend of saponins, which included transformation pathways pertaining to glycolytic metabolism, ring closure reaction, dehydrogenation, and carbonylation. The cumulative findings provide the basis for the rapid qualitative analysis of the saponin components of D. nipponica before and after biotransformation. The 11 metabolites obtained from biotransformation are potential active ingredients obtained from D. nipponica, which can be used to further identify pharmacodynamically active substances.

Trillin inhibits myoblast differentiation via increasing autophagy

BACKGROUND

Trillin, an active ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine Trillium tschonoskii, is a potential small molecule compound candidate that affecting myoblast differentiation, which predicting by AI technology in our previous study. Autophagy modulating myoblast differentiation has also been studied. In addition, Trillin was shown to regulate mTOR signaling pathway, a highly conserved kinase important for autophagy regulation.

PURPOSE

In this research, we aim to clarify the effect and underlying mechanism of Trillin on myoblast differentiation.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Using mice C2C12 cell line to establish a myoblast differentiation model in vitro, treated with different concentration and time of Trillin, to explore the effect and latent mechanism of Trillin on myoblast differentiation by qRT-PCR, Western Blot and other molecular biological technique.

RESULTS

Results showed that C2C12 differentiation was significantly inhibited by Trillin in a dose-dependent manner. The expression of MyHC, MyOG and MyoD was decreased extremely significant after 10 μM Trillin treatment. Meanwhile, autophagy level was significantly elevated with the supplement of Trillin. And C2C12 differentiation was recovered after ATG7 knockdown. Mechanically, we found that the activity of AKT/mTOR declined during the inhibition of differentiation by Trillin.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggested that Trillin attenuated C2C12 differentiation via increasing autophagy through AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Taken together, we introduce a novel physiological function of Trillin in inhibiting skeletal muscle differentiation.

STAT3 Pathway in Gastric Cancer: Signaling, Therapeutic Targeting and Future Prospects

Molecular signaling pathways play a significant role in the regulation of biological mechanisms, and their abnormal expression can provide the conditions for cancer development. The signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is a key member of the STAT proteins and its oncogene role in cancer has been shown. STAT3 is able to promote the proliferation and invasion of cancer cells and induces chemoresistance. Different downstream targets of STAT3 have been identified in cancer and it has also been shown that microRNA (miR), long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) and other molecular pathways are able to function as upstream mediators of STAT3 in cancer. In the present review, we focus on the role and regulation of STAT3 in gastric cancer (GC). miRs and lncRNAs are considered as potential upstream mediators of STAT3 and they are able to affect STAT3 expression in exerting their oncogene or onco-suppressor role in GC cells. Anti-tumor compounds suppress the STAT3 signaling pathway to restrict the proliferation and malignant behavior of GC cells. Other molecular pathways, such as sirtuin, stathmin and so on, can act as upstream mediators of STAT3 in GC. Notably, the components of the tumor microenvironment that are capable of targeting STAT3 in GC, such as fibroblasts and macrophages, are discussed in this review. Finally, we demonstrate that STAT3 can target oncogene factors to enhance the proliferation and metastasis of GC cells.