MicroRNA miR-7 and miR-17-92 in the Arcuate Nucleus of Mouse Hypothalamus Regulate Sex-Specific Diet-Induced Obesity

Overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 in Myeloid Cells in Mice Increased Bone Mass Through Reduced Bone Resorption and Increased Bone Formation in Sex-Dependent Manner

This study assessed the feasibility of miR17 ~ 92-based antiresorptive strategy by determining the effects of conditional transgenic (cTG) overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 in myeloid cells on bone and osteoclasts. Osteoclasts of male and female cTG mutant mice each showed 3- to fivefold overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 cluster genes compared to those of age- and sex-matched wildtype (WT) littermates. Male but not female cTG mutant mice had more trabecular and cortical bones as well as lower bone resorption reflected by reduction in osteoclast number and resorbing surface. Osteoclasts of male but not female cTG mutants showed decreased bone resorption activity. Consistent with suppression of osteoclast maturation, osteoclasts of male cTG mutants were smaller, contained less nuclei, showed reduced levels of mRNA of genes associated with osteoclast differentiation and fusion, and formed more diffused actin ring. Osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 also increased bone formation, but the increase was much larger in males than in females. The increase in male mutants was due to higher mineral apposition rate, and conversely, it was caused by increasing bone-forming surface in female mutants. In summary, osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 increased bone mass through reduction in bone resorption along with coupled increase in bone formation in male-specific manner. Although the osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92-induced suppression of bone resorption and increases in bone formation support the feasibility of miR17 ~ 92-based antiresorptive strategies, the male-specific sexual disparity in skeletal responses to osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 could limit its clinical utility as it may not be used in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Epigenetic regulation is involved in reversal of obesity

Epigenetic processes play a crucial role in mediating the impact of environmental energetic challenges, from overconsumption to starvation. Over-nutrition of energy-dense foods and sedentary lifestyles contribute to the development of obesity, characterized by excessive fat storage and impaired metabolic signaling, stemming from disrupted brain signaling. Conversely, dieting and physical activity facilitate body weight rebalancing and trigger adaptive neural responses. These adaptations involve the upregulation of neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity and optimized brain function and energy homeostasis, balanced hormone signaling, normal metabolism, and reduced inflammation. The transition of the brain from a maladaptive to an adaptive state is partially guided by epigenetic mechanisms. While epigenetic mechanisms underlying obesity-related brain changes have been described, their role in mediating the reversal of maladaptation/obesity through lifestyle interventions remains less explored. This review focuses on elucidating epigenetic mechanisms involved in hypothalamic adaptations induced by lifestyle interventions. Given that lifestyle interventions are widely prescribed and accessible approaches for weight loss and maintenance, it is our challenge to uncover epigenetic mechanisms moderating these hypothalamic-functional beneficial changes.

Fasting-induced miR-7a-5p in AgRP neurons regulates food intake

OBJECTIVE

The molecular control of feeding after fasting is essential for maintaining energy homeostasis, while overfeeding usually leads to obesity. Identifying non-coding microRNAs (miRNAs) that control food intake could reveal new oligonucleotide-based therapeutic targets for treating obesity and its associated diseases. This study aims to identify a miRNA modulating food intake and its mechanism in neuronal regulation of food intake and energy homeostasis.

METHODS

A comprehensive genome-wide miRNA screening in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC) of fasted mice and ad libitum mice was performed. Through stereotactic virus injections, intracerebroventricular injections, and miRNA sponge technology, miR-7a-5p was inhibited specifically in AgRP neurons and the central nervous system, and metabolic phenotypes were monitored. Quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting, immunofluorescence, whole-cell patch-clamp recording, and luciferase reporter assay were used to investigate the mechanisms underlying miR-7a-5p's regulation of food intake.

RESULTS

We found a significant increase in miR-7a-5p levels after fasting. miR-7a-5p was highly expressed in the ARC, and inhibition of miR-7a-5p specifically in AgRP neurons reduced food intake and body weight gain. miR-7a-5p inhibited S6K1 gene expression by binding to its 3'-UTR. Furthermore, the knockdown of ribosomal S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) in AgRP neurons can partially reverse the effects caused by miR-7a-5p inhibition. Importantly, intracerebroventricular administration of the miR-7a-5p inhibitor could also reduce food intake and body weight gain.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that miR-7a-5p responds to energy deficit and regulates food intake by fine-tuning mTOR1/S6K1 signaling in the AgRP neurons, which could be a promising oligonucleotide-based therapeutic target for treating obesity and its associated diseases.

MicroRNA-7 regulates endocrine progenitor delamination and endocrine cell mass in developing pancreatic islets

β-cell replenishment in patients with diabetes through cadaveric islet transplantation has been successful; however, it requires long-term immunosuppression and suitable islet donors are scarce. Stepwise in vitro differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into β-cells represents a viable alternative, but limitations in our current understanding of in vivo islet endocrine differentiation constrains its clinical use. Here, we show that microRNA-7 (miR-7) is highly expressed in embryonic pancreatic endocrine progenitors. Genetic deletion of the miR-7 gene family in endocrine progenitors leads to reduced islet endocrine cell mass, due to endocrine progenitors failing to delaminate from the epithelial plexus. This is associated with a reduction in neurogenin-3 levels and increased expression of Sry-box transcription factor 9. Further, we observe that a significant number of endocrine progenitors lacking miR-7 differentiate into ductal cells. Our study suggests that increasing miR-7 expression could improve efficiency of in vitro differentiation and augment stem cell-derived β-cell terminal maturity.

Micromanaging the neuroendocrine system - A review on miR-7 and the other physiologically relevant miRNAs in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis

The hypothalamic-pituitary axis is central to the functioning of the neuroendocrine system and essential for regulating physiological and behavioral homeostasis and coordinating fundamental body functions. The expanding line of evidence shows the indispensable role of the microRNA pathway in regulating the gene expression profile in the developing and adult hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Experiments provoking a depletion of miRNA maturation in the context of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis brought into focus a prominent involvement of miRNAs in neuroendocrine functions. There are also a few individual miRNAs and miRNA families that have been studied in depth revealing their crucial role in mediating the regulation of fundamental processes such as temporal precision of puberty timing, hormone production, fertility and reproduction capacity, and energy balance. Among these miRNAs, miR-7 was shown to be hypothalamus-enriched and the top one highly expressed in the pituitary gland, where it has a profound impact on gene expression regulation. Here, we review miRNA profiles, knockout phenotypes, and miRNA interaction (targets) in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis that advance our understanding of the roles of miRNAs in mammalian neurosecretion and related physiology.

Maternal obesity increases hypothalamic miR-505-5p expression in mouse offspring leading to altered fatty acid sensing and increased intake of high-fat food

In utero exposure to maternal obesity programs increased obesity risk. Animal models show that programmed offspring obesity is preceded by hyperphagia, but the mechanisms that mediate these changes are unknown. Using a mouse model of maternal obesity, we observed increased intake of a high-fat diet (HFD) in offspring of obese mothers that precedes the development of obesity. Through small RNA sequencing, we identified programmed overexpression of hypothalamic miR-505-5p that is established in the fetus, lasts to adulthood and is maintained in hypothalamic neural progenitor cells cultured in vitro. Metabolic hormones and long-chain fatty acids associated with obesity increase miR-505-5p expression in hypothalamic neurons in vitro. We demonstrate that targets of miR-505-5p are enriched in fatty acid metabolism pathways and overexpression of miR-505-5p decreased neuronal fatty acid metabolism in vitro. miR-505-5p targets are associated with increased BMI in human genetic studies. Intra-cerebroventricular injection of miR-505-5p in wild-type mice increased HFD intake, mimicking the phenotype observed in offspring exposed to maternal obesity. Conversely, maternal exercise intervention in an obese mouse pregnancy rescued the programmed increase of hypothalamic miR-505-5p in offspring of obese dams and reduced HFD intake to control offspring levels. This study identifies a novel mechanism by which maternal obesity programs obesity in offspring via increased intake of high-fat foods.

Epigenetics in obesity: Mechanisms and advances in therapies based on natural products

Obesity is a major risk factor for morbidity and mortality because it has a close relationship to metabolic illnesses, such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and some types of cancer. With no drugs available, the mainstay of obesity management remains lifestyle changes with exercise and dietary modifications. In light of the tremendous disease burden and unmet therapeutics, fresh perspectives on pathophysiology and drug discovery are needed. The development of epigenetics provides a compelling justification for how environmental, lifestyle, and other risk factors contribute to the pathogenesis of obesity. Furthermore, epigenetic dysregulations can be restored, and it has been reported that certain natural products obtained from plants, such as tea polyphenols, ellagic acid, urolithins, curcumin, genistein, isothiocyanates, and citrus isoflavonoids, were shown to inhibit weight gain. These substances have great antioxidant potential and are of great interest because they can also modify epigenetic mechanisms. Therefore, understanding epigenetic modifications to target the primary cause of obesity and the epigenetic mechanisms of anti-obesity effects with certain phytochemicals can prove rational strategies to prevent the disease and develop novel therapeutic interventions. Thus, the current review aimed to summarize the epigenetic mechanisms and advances in therapies for obesity based on natural products to provide evidence for the development of several potential anti-obesity drug targets.

MicroRNA-19 is regulated by aldosterone in a sex-specific manner to alter kidney sodium transport

A key regulator of blood pressure homeostasis is the steroid hormone aldosterone, which is released as the final signaling hormone of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-signaling (RAAS) system. Aldosterone increases sodium (Na+) reabsorption in the kidney distal nephron to regulate blood volume. Unregulated RAAS signaling can lead to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. The serum and glucocorticoid kinase (SGK1) coordinates much of the Na+ reabsorption in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) tubular epithelial cells. We previously demonstrated that aldosterone alters the expression of microRNAs (miRs) in CCD principal cells. The aldosterone-regulated miRs can modulate Na+ transport and the cellular response to aldosterone signaling. However, the sex-specific regulation of miRs by aldosterone in the kidney distal nephron has not been explored. In this study, we report that miR-19, part of the miR-17-92 cluster, is upregulated in female mouse CCD cells in response to aldosterone activation. Mir-19 binding to the 3'-untranslated region of SGK1 was confirmed using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Increasing miR-19 expression in CCD cells decreased SGK1 message and protein expression. Removal of this cluster using a nephron-specific, inducible knockout mouse model increased SGK1 expression in female mouse CCD cells. The miR-19-induced decrease in SGK1 protein expression reduced the response to aldosterone stimulation and may account for sex-specific differences in aldosterone signaling. By examining evolution of the miR-17-92 cluster, phylogenetic sequence analysis indicated that this cluster arose at the same time that other Na+-sparing and salt regulatory proteins, specifically SGK1, first emerged, indicating a conserved role for these miRs in kidney function of salt and water homeostasis.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Expression of the microRNA-17-92 cluster is upregulated by aldosterone in mouse cortical collecting duct principal cells, exclusively in female mice. MiR-19 in this cluster targets the serum and glucocorticoid kinase (SGK1) to downregulate both mRNA and protein expression, resulting in a decrease in sodium transport across epithelial cells of the collecting duct. The miR-17-92 cluster is evolutionarily conserved and may act as a novel feedback regulator for aldosterone signaling in females.

Epigenetic regulation in metabolic diseases: mechanisms and advances in clinical study

Epigenetics regulates gene expression and has been confirmed to play a critical role in a variety of metabolic diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), osteoporosis, gout, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism and others. The term 'epigenetics' was firstly proposed in 1942 and with the development of technologies, the exploration of epigenetics has made great progresses. There are four main epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modification, chromatin remodelling, and noncoding RNA (ncRNA), which exert different effects on metabolic diseases. Genetic and non-genetic factors, including ageing, diet, and exercise, interact with epigenetics and jointly affect the formation of a phenotype. Understanding epigenetics could be applied to diagnosing and treating metabolic diseases in the clinic, including epigenetic biomarkers, epigenetic drugs, and epigenetic editing. In this review, we introduce the brief history of epigenetics as well as the milestone events since the proposal of the term 'epigenetics'. Moreover, we summarise the research methods of epigenetics and introduce four main general mechanisms of epigenetic modulation. Furthermore, we summarise epigenetic mechanisms in metabolic diseases and introduce the interaction between epigenetics and genetic or non-genetic factors. Finally, we introduce the clinical trials and applications of epigenetics in metabolic diseases.

MicroRNA-7 regulates melanocortin circuits involved in mammalian energy homeostasis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) modulate physiological responses by repressing the expression of gene networks. We found that global deletion of microRNA-7 (miR-7), the most enriched miRNA in the hypothalamus, causes obesity in mice. Targeted deletion of miR-7 in Single-minded homolog 1 (Sim1) neurons, a critical component of the hypothalamic melanocortin pathway, causes hyperphagia, obesity and increased linear growth, mirroring Sim1 and Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) haplo-insufficiency in mice and humans. We identified Snca (α-Synuclein) and Igsf8 (Immunoglobulin Superfamily Member 8) as miR-7 target genes that act in Sim1 neurons to regulate body weight and endocrine axes. In humans, MIR-7-1 is located in the last intron of HNRNPK, whose promoter drives the expression of both genes. Genetic variants at the HNRNPK locus that reduce its expression are associated with increased height and truncal fat mass. These findings demonstrate that miR-7 suppresses gene networks involved in the hypothalamic melanocortin pathway to regulate mammalian energy homeostasis.

Neuroendocrine microRNAs linked to energy homeostasis: future therapeutic potential

The brain orchestrates whole-body metabolism through an intricate system involving interneuronal crosstalk and communication. Specifically, a key player in this complex circuitry is the hypothalamus that controls feeding behaviour, energy expenditure, body weight and metabolism, whereby hypothalamic neurons sense and respond to circulating hormones, nutrients, and chemicals. Dysregulation of these neurons contributes to the development of metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. The involvement of hypothalamic microRNAs, post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression, in the central regulation of energy homeostasis has become increasingly apparent, although not completely delineated. This review summarizes current evidence demonstrating the regulation of feeding-related neuropeptides by brain-derived microRNAs as well as the regulation of specific miRNAs by nutrients and other peripheral signals. Moreover, the involvement of microRNAs in the central nervous system control of insulin, leptin, and estrogen signal transduction is examined. Finally, the therapeutic and diagnostic potential of microRNAs for metabolic disorders will be discussed and the regulation of brain-derived microRNAs by nutrients and other peripheral signals is considered. Demonstrating a critical role of microRNAs in hypothalamic regulation of energy homeostasis is an innovative route to uncover novel biomarkers and therapeutic candidates for metabolic disorders.

Neuronal miR-29a protects from obesity in adult mice

Objective

Obesity, a growing threat to the modern society, represents an imbalance of metabolic queues that normally signal to the arcuate hypothalamic nucleus, a critical brain region sensing and regulating energy homeostasis. This is achieved by various neurons many of which developmentally originate from the proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-expressing lineage. Within the mature neurons originating from this lineage, we aimed to identify non-coding genes in control of metabolic function in the adulthood.

Methods

In this work, we used microRNA mimic delivery and POMC^Cre-dependent CRISPR-Cas9 knock-out strategies in young or aged mice. Importantly, we also used CRISPR guides directing suicide cleavage of Cas9 to limit the off-target effects.

Results

Here we found that mature neurons originating from the POMC lineage employ miR-29a to protect against insulin resistance obesity, hyperphagia, decreased energy expenditure and obesity. Moreover, we validated the miR-29 family as a prominent regulator of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway. Within the latter, we identified a direct target of miR-29a-3p, Nras, which was up-regulated in those and only those mature POMC^CreCas9 neurons that were effectively transduced by anti-miR-29 CRISPR-equipped construct. Moreover, POMC^Cre-dependent co-deletion of Nras in mature neurons attenuated miR-29 depletion-induced obesity.

Conclusions

Thus, the first to our knowledge case of in situ Cre-dependent CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knock-out of microRNAs in a specific hypothalamic neuronal population helped us to decipher a critical metabolic circuit in adult mice. This work significantly extends our understanding about the involvement of neuronal microRNAs in homeostatic regulation.

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Delivery of miR-29a-3p to the arcuate hypothalamic nucleus attenuates obesity.

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Knock-out of genes in mature neurons by Cre-dependent CRISPR/Cas9 technique involving Cas9-cleaving sgRNAs to limit off-target effects.

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Deletion of miR-29a in mature Pomc^Cre neurons leads to early-onset insulin resistance and later to hyperphagia and decreased energy expenditure.

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POMC^Cre-restricted deletion of miR-29a causes cell-autonomous Nras up-regulation leading to obesity.

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POMC^Cre-restricted knock-out of Nras, a direct target of miR-29a-3p, attenuates obesity in mice.

In Vivo Reductionist Approach Identifies miR-15a Protecting Mice From Obesity

Obesity is a growing medical and social problem worldwide. The control of energy homeostasis in the brain is achieved by various regions including the arcuate hypothalamic nucleus (ARH). The latter comprises a number of neuronal populations including the first order metabolic neurons, appetite-stimulating agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurons and appetite-suppressing proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons. Using an in vivo reductionist approach and POMC^Cre-dependent CRISPR-Cas9, we demonstrate that miR-15a-5p protects from obesity. Moreover, we have identified Bace1, a gene previously linked to energy metabolism imbalance, as a direct target of miR-15a-5p. This work warrants further investigations of non-coding RNA-mediated regulation of energy homeostasis and might contribute to the development of novel therapeutic approaches to treat metabolic diseases.

Recent advances in neuropeptide-related omics and gene editing: Spotlight on NPY and somatostatin and their roles in growth and food intake of fish

Feeding and growth are two closely related and important physiological processes in living organisms. Studies in mammals have provided us with a series of characterizations of neuropeptides and their receptors as well as their roles in appetite control and growth. The central nervous system, especially the hypothalamus, plays an important role in the regulation of appetite. Based on their role in the regulation of feeding, neuropeptides can be classified as orexigenic peptide and anorexigenic peptide. To date, the regulation mechanism of neuropeptide on feeding and growth has been explored mainly from mammalian models, however, as a lower and diverse vertebrate, little is known in fish regarding the knowledge of regulatory roles of neuropeptides and their receptors. In recent years, the development of omics and gene editing technology has accelerated the speed and depth of research on neuropeptides and their receptors. These powerful techniques and tools allow a more precise and comprehensive perspective to explore the functional mechanisms of neuropeptides. This paper reviews the recent advance of omics and gene editing technologies in neuropeptides and receptors and their progresses in the regulation of feeding and growth of fish. The purpose of this review is to contribute to a comparative understanding of the functional mechanisms of neuropeptides in non-mammalians, especially fish.

Mechanisms Driving Palmitate-Mediated Neuronal Dysregulation in the Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus maintains whole-body homeostasis by integrating information from circulating hormones, nutrients and signaling molecules. Distinct neuronal subpopulations that express and secrete unique neuropeptides execute the individual functions of the hypothalamus, including, but not limited to, the regulation of energy homeostasis, reproduction and circadian rhythms. Alterations at the hypothalamic level can lead to a myriad of diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, and infertility. The excessive consumption of saturated fatty acids can induce neuroinflammation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and resistance to peripheral signals, ultimately leading to hyperphagia, obesity, impaired reproductive function and disturbed circadian rhythms. This review focuses on the how the changes in the underlying molecular mechanisms caused by palmitate exposure, the most commonly consumed saturated fatty acid, and the potential involvement of microRNAs, a class of non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally, can result in detrimental alterations in protein expression and content. Studying the involvement of microRNAs in hypothalamic function holds immense potential, as these molecular markers are quickly proving to be valuable tools in the diagnosis and treatment of metabolic disease.

Diet-induced obesity in animal models: points to consider and influence on metabolic markers

Overweight and obesity are a worldwide public health problem. Obesity prevalence has increased considerably, which indicates the need for more studies to better understand these diseases and related complications. Diet induced-obesity (DIO) animal models can reproduce human overweight and obesity, and there are many protocols used to lead to excess fat deposition. So, the purpose of this review was to identify the key points for the induction of obesity through diet, as well as identifying which are the necessary endpoints to be achieved when inducing fat gain. For this, we reviewed the literature in the last 6 years, looking for original articles that aimed to induce obesity through the diet. All articles evaluated should have a control group, in order to verify the results found, and had worked with Sprague-Dawley and Wistar rats, or with C57BL-/-6 mice strain. Articles that induced obesity by other methods, such as genetic manipulation, surgery, or drugs were excluded, since our main objective was to identify key points for the induction of obesity through diet. Articles in humans, in cell culture, in non-rodent animals, as well as review articles, articles that did not have obesity induction and book chapters were also excluded. Body weight and fat gain, as well as determinants related to inflammation, hormonal concentration, blood glycemia, lipid profile, and liver health, must be evaluated together to better determination of the development of obesity. In addition, to select the best model in each circumstance, it should be considered that each breed and sex respond differently to diet-induced obesity. The composition of the diet and calorie overconsumption are also relevant to the development of obesity. Finally, it is important that a non-obese control group is included in the experimental design.

Tanycytes in the infundibular nucleus and median eminence and their role in the blood-brain barrier

The blood-brain barrier is generally attributed to endothelial cells. However, in circumventricular organs, such as the median eminence, tanycytes take over the barrier function. These ependymoglial cells form the wall of the third ventricle and send long extensions into the parenchyma to contact blood vessels and hypothalamic neurons. The shape and location of tanycytes put them in an ideal position to connect the periphery with central nervous compartments. In line with this, tanycytes control the transport of hormones and key metabolites in and out of the hypothalamus. They function as sensors of peripheral homeostasis for central regulatory networks. This chapter discusses current evidence that tanycytes play a key role in regulating glucose balance, food intake, endocrine axes, seasonal changes, reproductive function, and aging. The understanding of how tanycytes perform these diverse tasks is only just beginning to emerge and will probably lead to a more differentiated view of how the brain and the periphery interact.

Upregulation of Mir342 in Diet-Induced Obesity Mouse and the Hypothalamic Appetite Control

In obesity and type 2 diabetes, numerous genes are differentially expressed, and microRNAs are involved in transcriptional regulation of target mRNAs, but miRNAs critically involved in the appetite control are not known. Here, we identified upregulation of miR-342-3p and its host gene Evl in brain and adipose tissues in C57BL/6 mice fed with high fat-high sucrose (HFHS) chow by RNA sequencing. Mir342 (-/-) mice fed with HFHS chow were protected from obesity and diabetes. The hypothalamic arcuate nucleus neurons co-express Mir342 and EVL. The percentage of activated NPY⁺pSTAT3⁺ neurons were reduced, while POMC⁺pSTAT3⁺ neurons increased in Mir342 (-/-) mice, and they demonstrated the reduction of food intake and amelioration of metabolic phenotypes. Snap25 was identified as a major target gene of miR-342-3p and the reduced expression of Snap25 may link to functional impairment hypothalamic neurons and excess of food intake. The inhibition of miR-342-3p may be a potential candidate for miRNA-based therapy.

The expression profile and role of non-coding RNAs in obesity

Latest years have experienced a dramatic upsurge in the knowledge about the function of non-coding transcripts in the determination of diverse human phenotypes including obesity. Several miRNAs and lncRNAs participate in the regulation of metabolic pathways leading to obesity. Several lncRNAs such as Mist, lincIRS2, lncRNA-p5549, H19, GAS5 and SNHG9 have been shown to be down-regulated in adipose tissues or other biological samples in the obese human or animal subjects. On the other hand, Meg3, Plnc1, Blnc1, AC092834.1, TINCR and PVT1 are among up-regulated lncRNAs in the obese subjects. Tens of miRNAs have differential expression between obese and non-obese subjects or between mature adipocytes and pre-adipocytes. Understanding the molecular mechanism of involvement of non-coding RNAs in the pathobiology of obesity would simplify design of therapeutic choices for protecting against obesity and its related comorbidities. We explain the available literature on the function of these transcripts in the pathobiology of obesity.

Integrating Pathophysiology in Migraine: Role of the Gut Microbiome and Melatonin

BACKGROUND

The pathoetiology and pathophysiology of migraine are widely accepted as unknown.

METHODS

The current article reviews the wide array of data associated with the biological underpinnings of migraine and provides a framework that integrates previously disparate bodies of data.

RESULTS

The importance of alterations in stress- and pro-inflammatory cytokine- induced gut dysbiosis, especially butyrate production, are highlighted. This is linked to a decrease in the availability of melatonin, and a relative increase in the N-acetylserotonin/melatonin ratio, which has consequences for the heightened glutamatergic excitatory transmission in migraine. It is proposed that suboptimal mitochondria functioning and metabolic regulation drive alterations in astrocytes and satellite glial cells that underpin the vasoregulatory and nociceptive changes in migraine.

CONCLUSION

This provides a framework not only for classical migraine associated factors, such as calcitonin-gene related peptide and serotonin, but also for wider factors in the developmental pathoetiology of migraine. A number of future research and treatment implications arise, including the clinical utilization of sodium butyrate and melatonin in the management of migraine.