Serum hepatitis B virus DNA before liver transplantation correlates with HBV reinfection rate even under successful low-dose hepatitis B immunoglobulin prophylaxis

HBV Recurrence Detected by HBV-Related Serum Markers and Immune Escape Mutations in Chronic Hepatitis B Patients Following Liver Transplantation

The posttransplantation recurrence rate of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) is underestimated and linked with unfavorable outcomes. We investigated HBV recurrence by serum assays in patients with CHB following liver transplantation. We enrolled patients with CHB who underwent liver transplantation between March 2001 and July 2021 to participate in cross-sectional testing for HBV-related serum markers, including biochemical analysis for HBsAg and hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) and real-time RT-PCR/PCR for HBV RNA and HBV DNA, in 2022. HBV recurrence in this study was defined as positive results of at least one posttransplantation HBV-related serum markers. Next-generation sequencing was performed for those with posttransplantation virological breakthroughs. Ninety-six patients with CHB who underwent liver transplantation were enrolled. Among 84 patients who received grafts negative for HBsAg, 41 (48.8%) exhibited HBV recurrence, and they tested positive for either HBsAg or HBcrAg, or both. High-risk patients, identified using a risk stratification model, had a higher likelihood of recurrence than low-risk patients (odds ratio: 2.59, 95% confidence interval: 1.06-6.35, p = 0.038). In 51 patients who tested negative for HBsAg after receiving HBsAg-negative grafts, 8 (15.7%) had positive HBcrAg, indicating occult HBV infection (OBI). We identified immune escape mutations and altered N-glycosylation patterns on the surface protein in patients experiencing virological breakthroughs following lamivudine resistance. HBsAg plus HBcrAg levels can be used to detect posttransplantation HBV recurrence. The OBI prevalence was higher in patients transplanted with HBsAg-negative liver grafts compared to blood donors, vaccinated young population, and community-based populations reported in literatures, possibly because of immune escape mutations or altered N-glycosylation patterns of surface proteins.

Was antiviral prophylaxis necessary after kidney transplantation utilizing HBcAb+ donors? A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Current guidelines lack consensus on whether antiviral prophylaxes should be administered after kidney transplantation from HBcAb+ donors. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the incidence and risk factors of de novo HBV (DNH) infection, as well as graft and patient survival.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library up to December 31, 2023. We included relevant studies that assessed clinical outcomes following transplantation utilizing HBcAb+ kidneys. Summary measures of effect and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for prevalence, risk factors, as well as graft and patient survival were estimated using random-effects meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Thirteen studies were included for the final analysis. The DNH incidence was at 0.36% (9/2516) with low heterogeneity (I2 = 6%). HBsAb+ recipients (OR: 0.78, 95%CI: 0.25-2.38), HBcAb+ recipients (OR: 3.11, 95%CI: 0.91-10.66, P = 0.071), and recipients not receiving any antiviral prophylaxis (OR: 1.26, 95%CI: 0.15-10.58) were not associated with higher DNH risk. Specifically, HBsAb-/HBcAb+ recipients had the highest DNH incidence (4.65%), followed by HBsAb-/HBcAb- (0.49%), HBsAb+/HBcAb- recipients (0.45%), and HBsAb+/HBcAb+ (0%). Furthermore, recipients receiving HBcAb+ kidneys had comparable graft survival (HR: 1.06, 95%CI: 0.94-1.19, P = 0.55) and patient survival (HR:1.16, 95%CI: 0.98-1.38, P = 0.090) compared with recipients receiving HBcAb- kidneys.

CONCLUSION

Kidney transplantation utilizing HBcAb+ kidneys contributed to comparable graft and patient survival with an extremely low risk of HBV transmission. Antiviral prophylaxes may only be administered in HBsAb-/HBcAb+ recipients.

Early intrahepatic recurrence of HBV infection in liver transplant recipients despite antiviral prophylaxis

Background & Aims

Prophylaxis with nucleos(t)ide analogues (NUCs) and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) has decreased the rate of HBV recurrence after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT), but the duration of this prophylaxis remains debated. Our aim was to investigate the recurrence of both intrahepatic and serum HBV markers after OLT in patients receiving long-term NUC and HBIG prophylaxis.

Methods

A total of 31 HBV-positive patients benefiting from OLT were prospectively enrolled in five French centres between 2012 and 2015. Tissue samples from the native liver, liver reperfusion biopsy, and 12-month post-OLT (M12) biopsy were collected. Intrahepatic HBV markers were quantified using Droplet Digital PCR. Serum hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) and HBsAg were quantified using the Lumipulse platform.

Results

Among the 31 patients, 26 were HBeAg negative and 28 had undetectable serum HBV DNA at OLT. All patients received HBIG and NUC after OLT, and serum HBV DNA was undetectable at M12. Of the 27 available native livers, 26 had detectable total HBV DNA (median, 0.045 copies/cell), 21 were positive for cccDNA (0.001 copies/cell), and 19 were positive for 3.5-kb HBV RNA (0.0004 copies/cell). Among the 14 sequential reperfusion and M12 biopsies, seven were positive for HBV markers on the reperfusion sampling, and six of them were also positive at M12. Of the 27 patients with available serum samples at M12, eight were positive for HBcrAg and five were positive for HBsAg by ultrasensitive quantification, although they were negative by conventional techniques. Overall, among the 17 patients having a matched biopsy and serum sample at M12, only one had undetectable HBV markers in both the liver and serum.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate a very early detection of viral genome in the graft and intrahepatic viral recurrence despite NUC and HBIG prophylaxis.

Clinical Trials Registration

This study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02602847).

Impact and Implications

In this work, we show that, despite the recommended prophylaxis based on NUC and HBIG, HBV can infect the new liver very rapidly after transplantation. Twelve months after transplantation, the majority of patients had at least one HBV marker detected in either serum or the liver. Therefore, our results demonstrate early intrahepatic viral recurrence despite NUC and HBIG therapy and underline the importance of an optimal patient compliance to the antiviral prophylaxis to prevent viral rebound.

Hepatitis B Core-Related Antigen and New Therapies for Hepatitis B

The hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) is an unprecedented novel HBV biomarker that plays an essential role in reflecting covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) because its levels correlate with intrahepatic cccDNA and serum HBV DNA. In this review, we describe the clinical application of serum HBcrAg in CHB patients, with a particular focus on new therapies targeting intrahepatic HBV replication. (1) HBcrAg can be detected in clinical cases where serum HBV DNA is undetectable during anti-HBV therapy. (2) A highly sensitive HBcrAg assay (iTACT-HBcrAg) may be useful for monitoring HBV reactivation, as an alternative to HBV DNA. (3) Decreased HBcrAg levels have been significantly associated with promising outcomes in CHB patients, reducing the risk of progression or recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. Additionally, we focus on and discuss several drugs in development that target HBV replication, and monitoring HBcrAg may be useful for determining the therapeutic efficacies of such novel drugs. In conclusion, HBcrAg, especially when measured by the recently developed iTACT-HBcrAg assay, may be the most appropriate surrogate marker, over other HBV biomarkers, to predict disease progression and treatment response in CHB patients.

Hepatitis B Core-Related Antigen: From Virology to Clinical Application

Hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) is a composite measure of the serum levels of hepatitis B e antigen, hepatitis B core antigen, and a 22-kDa precore protein. It has been shown to reflect the level and transcriptional activity of covalently closed circular DNA in the liver. Longitudinal cohort studies have improved our understanding of the role of this novel viral marker in the natural history of chronic hepatitis B. HBcrAg kinetics reflect the response to peginterferon, and its role in defining guidelines for stopping peginterferon therapy has been evaluated. HBcrAg is a marker of intrahepatic viral activity, which may influence the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. In this article, we review the virology and role of HBcrAg in defining phases of chronic hepatitis B. Furthermore, the function of HBcrAg in predicting treatment outcomes and its role in monitoring response to novel antiviral agents will be discussed.

Novel biomarkers for the management of chronic hepatitis B

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) cannot be eliminated completely from infected hepatocytes because of the presence of intrahepatic covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). As chronic hepatitis B (CHB) can progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), it is important to manage CHB to prevent HCC development in high-risk patients with high viral replicative activity or advanced fibrosis. Serum biomarkers are noninvasive and valuable for the management of CHB. Hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) correlates with serum HBV DNA and intrahepatic cccDNA. In CHB patients with undetectable serum HBV DNA or loss of HBsAg, HBcrAg still can be detected and the decrease in HBcrAg levels is significantly associated with hopeful outcomes. Therefore, HBcrAg can predict HCC occurrence or recurrence. Measurement of the Mac-2 binding protein glycosylation isomer (M2BPGi) has been introduced for the evaluation of liver fibrosis. Because elevated M2BPGi in CHB is related to liver fibrosis and the prediction of HCC development, monitoring its progression is essential. Because alpha fetoprotein (AFP) has insufficient sensitivity and specificity for early-stage HCC, a combination of AFP plus protein induced by vitamin K absence factor II, or AFP plus Lens culinaris agglutinin-reactive fraction of alpha-fetoprotein might improve the diagnosis of HCC development. Additionally, Dickkopf-1 and circulating immunoglobulin G antibodies are the novel markers to diagnose HCC or assess HCC prognosis. This review provides an overview of novel HBV biomarkers used for the management of intrahepatic viral replicative activity, liver fibrosis, and HCC development.

The role of hepatitis B core-related antigen in predicting hepatitis B virus recurrence after liver transplantation

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) is a viral marker for the development of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). However, the relationship between HBcrAg and HBV recurrence after liver transplantation (LT) is unclear.

AIM

To investigate the correlation of serum HBcrAg level with HBV recurrence post-LT to evaluate the prognostic role of the pre-LT HBcrAg level.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study enrolled 357 CHB patients who received LT for a median of 36.6 months. Univariate and multivariate analyses and time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for markers associated with HBV recurrence were analysed.

RESULTS

48 patients (13.4%) had HBV recurrence after LT. HBcrAg, detectable HBV DNA, HCC and HCC recurrence were associated with HBV recurrence. In a multivariate analysis, HBcrAg level was independently associated with HBV recurrence, and the relationship between HBcrAg level and incident HBV recurrence was significant and graded (HR: 3.17 per unit; 95% CI: 1.97-5.11; P for trend < .001). Additionally, HBcrAg level was superior to HBV DNA level in predicting HBV recurrence by time-dependent ROC analysis. Patients with an HBcrAg ≥ 5.0 log U/mL had a significantly higher 5-year cumulative recurrence rate than those with an HBcrAg < 5.0 log U/mL (37.6% vs 6%, P < .001); the adjusted hazard ratio was 5.27 (95% CI 2.47-11.25, P < .001).

CONCLUSION

An elevated serum HBcrAg level was independently associated with the risk of HBV recurrence in patients with CHB after LT.

The Role of Hepatitis B Core-Related Antigen

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) cannot be completely eliminated from infected hepatocytes due to the existence of intrahepatic covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). Serological biomarkers reflect intrahepatic viral replicative activity as non-invasive alternatives to liver biopsy. Hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) is a novel biomarker that has an important role in chronic hepatitis B (CHB), because it correlates with serum HBV DNA and intrahepatic cccDNA. In clinical cases with undetectable serum HBV DNA or loss of HBsAg, HBcrAg still can be detected and the decrease in HBcrAg levels is significantly associated with promising outcomes for CHB patients. HBcrAg can predict spontaneous or treatment-induced hepatitis B envelope antigen (HBeAg) seroconversion, persistent responses before and after cessation of nucleos(t)ide analogues, potential HBV reactivation, HBV reinfection after liver transplantation, and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma progression or recurrence. In this review, the clinical applications of HBcrAg in CHB patients based on its virological features are described. Furthermore, new potential therapeutic anti-HBV agents that affect intrahepatic cccDNA are under development, and the monitoring of HBcrAg might be useful to judge therapeutic effects. In conclusion, HBcrAg might be a suitable surrogate marker beyond other HBV markers to predict the disease progression and treatment responses of CHB patients.

Effect of Dosage and Type of Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin on Hepatitis Antibody Levels in Liver Transplant Recipients

BACKGROUND

The current study aimed to evaluate the effect of dosage and type (intramuscular [IM] vs intravenous [IV]) of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) on hepatitis antibody level in liver transplant recipients.

METHODS

Between September 2000 and August 2016, patients who underwent orthotropic liver transplantation for chronic liver failure or hepatocellular carcinoma secondary to chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) were retrospectively reviewed from a prospectively maintained database. The analyses of risk factors for postoperative short- and long-term anti-hepatitis B surface antibody levels (as classified level I: 0 to 100 U; II: 100 to 500 U; III: 500 to 1000 U; IV: >1000 U) were performed based on demographic characteristics, hepatitis B envelope antigen, hepatitis B core antibody, HBV DNA, delta antigen, HBIG administration dosage during unhepatic phase (5000 or 10,000 I/U; IM or IV), and type of administration in post-transplant period. Patients who were followed for less than 12 months were excluded from long-term analysis.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up of 58 orthotropic liver transplant patients was 72 (±45) months. No adverse events were observed during both IM and IV type of administration. Compared with IM type, IV administration was associated with a significantly higher HBV antibody level in the short term (for IM and IV: level I: 24% vs 6%; II: 49% vs 18%; III: 12% vs 35%; IV: 15% vs 41%, respectively, P = .007). In the long term, IV administration of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) was reported as the sole factor causing higher antibody level (P = .002). Longer follow-up was associated with decreased levels of anti-hepatitis B surface antibody.

CONCLUSION

IV HBIG administration in preoperative anhepatic phase and postoperative prophylaxis is associated with higher antibody level both the short and long term without any adverse event.

The relationship between HBcrAg and HBV reinfection in HBV related post-liver transplantation patients

BACKGROUND

Post-transplant hepatitis B virus (HBV) reinfection is one of the major problems facing patients who undergo HBV-related liver transplantation (LT). We analyzed the clinical impact of serum hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) on HBV reinfection in post-LT patients with HBV-related liver diseases.

METHODS

Serum hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), HBV DNA, and HBcrAg were measured over time in 32 post-LT patients. Twenty-one out of 32 patients had HCC at LT. The effects of HBcrAg, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) recurrence, and HBs gene mutation on HBV reinfection and withdrawal from hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG) were analyzed.

RESULTS

Sixteen out of 32 patients (50 %) were positive for HBcrAg even though only six patients were thought to have experienced HBV reinfection based on reappearance of either HBV DNA or HBsAg during a median follow-up time of 75 months. Three of these six patients who became re-infected with HBV experienced HCC recurrence after LT. The HBV DNA reappearance rate was significantly higher in patients with HCC recurrence after LT (p < 0.001). Two HBV re-infected patients without HCC recurrence had HBs gene mutations G145R and G145A, respectively. Anti-HBs antibody development rate by HB vaccination was similar between HBcrAg-positive and negative patients (p = 0.325).

CONCLUSIONS

HBV reinfection is more common than is usually considered based on conventional measurement of HBsAg and HBV DNA. HCC recurrence and mutations in the HBV S gene were associated with HBV reinfection after LT.

Rational Basis for Optimizing Short and Long-term Hepatitis B Virus Prophylaxis Post Liver Transplantation: Role of Hepatitis B Immune Globulin

Antiviral therapy using newer nucleos(t)ide analogues with lower resistance rates, such as entecavir or tenofovir, suppress hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication, improve liver function in patients with compensated or decompensated cirrhosis, and delay or obviate the need for liver transplantation in some patients. After liver transplantation, the combination of long-term antiviral and low-dose hepatitis B Immune globulin (HBIG) can effectively prevent HBV recurrence in greater than 90% of transplant recipients. Some forms of HBV prophylaxis need to be continued indefinitely after transplantation but, in patients with a low-risk of HBV recurrence (i.e., HBV DNA levels undetectable before transplantation), it is possible to discontinue HBIG and maintain only long-term nucleos(t)ide analogue(s) therapy. A more cautious approach is necessary for those patients with high pretransplant HBV DNA levels, those with limited antiviral options if HBV recurrence occurs (i.e., HIV or hepatitis D virus coinfection, preexisting drug resistance), those with a high risk of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence, and those at risk of noncompliance with antiviral therapy. In this group, HBIG-free prophylaxis cannot be recommended.

The combination of long-term antiviral and low-dose Hepatitis B Immune globulin (HBIG) can effectively prevent HBV recurrence in > 90% of liver transplant recipients. In patients with low HBV DNA levels, nucleos(t)ide analogue(s) treatment without HBIG is possible.

High-dose hepatitis B immunoglobulin therapy in hepatocellular carcinoma with hepatitis B virus-DNA/hepatitis B e antigen-positive patients after living donor liver transplantation

AIM: To investigate the impact of high-dose hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) recurrence and overall survival after living donor liver transplantation (LDLT).

METHODS: We investigated 168 patients who underwent LDLT due to HCC, and who were HBV-DNA/hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) -positive, from January 2008 to December 2013. After assessing whether the patients met the Milan criteria, they were assigned to the low-dose HBIG group and high-dose HBIG group. Using the propensity score 1:1 matching method, 38 and 18 pairs were defined as adhering to and not adhering to the Milan criteria. For each pair, HCC recurrence, HBV recurrence and overall survival were analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier method and the log rank test according to the HBIG dose.

RESULTS: Among those who met the Milan criteria, the 6-mo, 1-year, and 3-year HCC recurrence-free survival rates were 88.9%, 83.2%, and 83.2% in the low-dose HBIG group and 97.2%, 97.2%, and 97.2% in the high-dose HBIG group, respectively (P = 0.042). In contrast, among those who did not meet the Milan criteria, HCC recurrence did not differ according to the HBIG dose (P = 0.937). Moreover, HBV recurrence and overall survival did not differ according to the HBIG dose among those who met (P = 0.317 and 0.190, respectively) and did not meet (P = 0.350 and 0.987, respectively) the Milan criteria.

CONCLUSION: High-dose HBIG therapy can reduce HCC recurrence in HBV-DNA/HBeAg-positive patients after LDLT.

Prevention and Treatment of Recurrent Hepatitis B after Liver Transplantation

Chronic hepatitis B is a global health problem that leads to development of various complications, such as cirrhosis, liver cancer, and liver failure requiring liver transplantation. The recurrence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) post-liver transplantation is a major cause of allograft dysfunction, cirrhosis of the allograft, and graft failure. Patients with high viral load at the time of transplantation, hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) positivity, or those with a history of anti-viral drug resistance are considered as high-risk for recurrent HBV post-liver transplantation, while patients with low viral load, including HBeAg negative status, acute liver failure, and hepatitis D virus (HDV) co-infection are considered to be at low-risk for recurrent HBV post-liver transplantation. Antivirals for patients awaiting liver transplantation(LT) cause suppression of HBV replication and reduce the risk of recurrent HBV infection of the allograft and, therefore, all HBV patients with decompensated cirrhosis should be treated with potent antivirals with high genetic barrier to resistance (entecavir or tenofovir) prior to liver transplantation. Prevention of post-liver transplantation recurrence should be done using a combination of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and antivirals in patients at high risk of recurrence. Low dose HBIG, HBIG-free protocols, and monoprophylaxis with high potency antivirals can still be considered in patients at low risk of recurrence. Even, marginal grafts from anti-HBc positive donors can be safely used in hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) negative, preferably in anti-hepatitis B core (HBc)/anti-hepatitis B surface (HBs) positive recipients. In this article, we aim to review the mechanisms and risk factors of HBV recurrence post-LT in addition to the various treatment strategies proposed for the prevention of recurrent HBV infection.

Antiviral Combination Therapy With Low-Dose Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin for the Prevention of Hepatitis B Virus Recurrence in Liver Transplant Recipients: A Single-Center Experience

OBJECTIVES

This study presents the overall long-term hepatitis B virus (HBV) recurrence rate with possible associated factors after hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) was given in combination with 4 different antiviral (lamivudine, adefovir, entecavir, and tenofovir) drugs.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Between September 2000 and October 2013, the medical records of 42 adult patients who underwent liver transplantation at the Cukurova University Medical Hospital for chronic liver failure or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) secondary to chronic HBV were reviewed retrospectively. The analyses of risk factors for recurrence were performed based on the efficacy of hepatitis B envelope antigen (HBeAg), hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBc), HBV DNA, preoperative prophylaxis, and the presence of HCC. Posttransplantation HBV recurrence was defined as persistence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positivity after orthotopic liver transplantation, or the reappearance of HBsAg and HBV DNA after initial HBsAg undetectability despite prophylaxis.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up of 28 patients having HBIG and lamivudine prophylaxis was 73.25 ± 37.5 months with a recurrence rate of 3.5%. The mean follow-up of 2 patients having HBIG and adefovir prophylaxis was 90 ± 46.6 months with a 50% recurrence rate. The mean follow-up of each 6 patients who received prophylaxis with entecavir and tenofovir groups were 27.5 ± 16.1 and 16.17 ± 5.3 respectively, with no posttransplantation recurrence for both groups. On univariate analysis, preoperative factors such as anti-HBc, HBV DNA, preoperative prophylaxis, and the presence of HCC did not show any correlation with recurrence. However, HBeAg showed statistical significance for recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

Low-dose HBIG in combination with antiviral agents (lamivudine, entecavir, and tenofovir) is efficacious in preventing recurrence of HBV in posttransplantation patients.

A new scheme with infusion of hepatitis B immunoglobulin combined with entecavir for prophylaxis of hepatitis B virus recurrence among liver transplant recipients

OBJECTIVE

Liver transplantation significantly increases recurrence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) among high-risk patients. Hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and antiviral nucleotide analogues are effective prophylaxis reagents in preventing HBV recurrence. However, HBV recurrence still occurs with these treatments.

METHODS

To explore a more cost-effective prophylaxis protocol in patients after liver transplantation, we treated patients with an initial high dose of 10 000 IU HBIG during the anhepatic phase and a second high dose of HBIG at an optimal time point during surgery. The patients were treated with the traditional European protocol as a control, in which one dose of 10 000 IU HBIG was infused during the anhepatic phase and multiple doses of 10 000 IU HBIG were administered daily for 1 week after liver transplantation.

RESULTS

There were two mortalities among 50 patients treated with the new protocol and nine mortalities among 52 patients treated with the European protocol within 3 years after liver transplantation. The new prophylaxis method markedly improved the 3-year survival without HBV recurrence in 50 treated patients. However, there were five recurrences in 52 patients treated with the European protocol. High-risk factors such as HBV DNA+, positive hepatitis B e antigen, and hepatocellular carcinoma were all detected among five patients with HBV recurrence. The suppressed HBV recurrence was associated with significantly lower serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase in the new protocol-treated patients tested at 1 month and 1 week after liver surgery compared with those treated with the European protocol.

CONCLUSION

Infusion of two high doses of HBIG during surgery in combination with entecavir significantly prevented HBV recurrence and improved the 3-year survival after liver transplantation.

Molecular Mechanisms to Control Post-Transplantation Hepatitis B Recurrence

Hepatitis B often progresses to decompensated liver cirrhosis requiring orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT). Although newer nucleos(t)ide analogues result in >90% viral and hepatitis activity control, severely decompensated patients still need OLT because of drug-resistant virus, acute exacerbation, or hepatocellular carcinoma. Acute hepatitis B is also an indication for OLT, because it can progress to fatal acute liver failure. After OLT, the hepatitis B recurrence rate is >80% without prevention, while >90% of transplant recipients are clinically controlled with combined hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and nucleos(t)ide analogue treatment. However, long-term HBIG administration is associated with several unresolved issues, including limited availability and extremely high cost; therefore, several treatment protocols with low-dose HBIG, combined with nucleos(t)ide analogues, have been investigated. Another approach is to induce self-producing anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) antibodies using an HBV envelope (HBs) antigen vaccine. Patients who are not HBV carriers, such as those with acutely infected liver failure, are good candidates for vaccination. For chronic HBV carrier liver cirrhosis patients, a successful vaccine response can only be achieved in selected patients, such as those treated with experimentally reduced immunosuppression protocols. The present protocol for post-OLT HBV control and the future prospects of newer treatment strategies are reviewed.

Liver transplantation for hepatitis B virus: Decreasing indication and changing trends

AIM

To evaluate the indication and outcome of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related liver transplantation (LT) in the era of newer antiviral agents.

METHODS

We collected data on all patients who underwent transplantation at King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center. These data included demographic, perioperative and long-term postoperative follow-up data including viral serological markers, HBV DNA, and repeated liver imaging. Between January 1990 and January 2012, 133 patients (106 males and 27 females) underwent LT for HBV-related cirrhosis at our center. All patients were followed up frequently during the first year following transplantation, according to our standard protocol; follow-up visits occurred every 3-6 mo thereafter. Breakthrough infection was defined as re-emergence of HBV-DNA or hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) while on treatment. Five patients transplanted prior to 1992 did not receive immediate posttransplant anti-HBV prophylaxis; all other patients were treated with HBIG and at least one nucleos(t)ide analog.

RESULTS

One hundred and thirty-three patients underwent LT for HBV and were followed for a median of 82 mo (range: 1-274). The rates of post-LT survival and HBV recurrence during the follow-up period were 89% and 11%, respectively. The following factors were associated with disease recurrence: younger age (44.3 ± 16.2 years vs 51.4 ± 9.9 years, P = 0.02), positive pretransplant hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) (60% vs 14%, P < 0.0001), detectable pretransplant HBV DNA (60% vs 27%, P = 0.03), positive posttransplant HBsAg (80% vs 4%, P < 0.0001) and positive posttransplant HBeAg (27% vs 1%, P < 0.0001). Forty-four (33%) patients had hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In the first (pre-2007) group, HBV was the second leading indication for LT after hepatitis C virus infection. A total of 64 transplants were performed, including 46 (72%) for decompensated HBV cirrhosis, 12 (19%) for decompensated cirrhosis complicated by HCC and 6 (10%) for compensated cirrhosis complicated by HCC. In the second group, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis surpassed HBV as the second leading indication for LT. A total of 69 HBV related transplants were performed, including 43 (62%) for decompensated HBV cirrhosis, 7 (10%) for decompensated cirrhosis complicated by HCC and 19 (27.5%) for compensated cirrhosis complicated by HCC. There was a significant (P = 0.007) increase in the number of transplants for compensated cirrhosis complicated by HCC.

CONCLUSION

The use of potent anti-HBV agents has led to a changing trend in the indications for LT. HBV is currently the third leading indication for LT in this hyperendemic area.

Enhancement of Programmed Death Ligand 2 on Hepatitis C Virus Infected Hepatocytes by Calcineurin Inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Post orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) viral hepatitis is an immunological condition where immune cells induce hepatitis during conditions of immune-suppression. The immune-regulatory programmed death-1 (PD-1)/PD-ligand 1 system is acknowledged to play important roles in immune-mediated diseases. However, the PD-1/PD-L2 interaction is not well characterized, with PD-L2 also exhibiting an immunostimulatory function. We hypothesized that this atypical molecule could affect the recurrence of post-OLT hepatitis. To test this hypothesis, we conducted immunohistochemical staining analysis and in vitro analysis of PD-L2.

METHODS

The expression of PD-L2 was evaluated in liver biopsy specimens from patients with chronic hepatitis B (n = 15), post-OLT hepatitis B (n = 8), chronic hepatitis C (n = 48), and post-OLT hepatitis C (CH-C-OLT) (n = 14). The effect of calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) on PD-L2 expression was investigated in hepatoma cell lines.

RESULTS

The PD-L2 was highly expressed on CH-C-OLT hepatocytes. Treatment of hepatoma cell lines with CNIs resulted in increased PD-L2 expression, especially in combination with HCV core or NS3 protein. Transfection of cell lines with PD-L2 containing plasmid resulted in high intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression, which might enhance hepatitis activity.

CONCLUSIONS

The PD-L2 is highly expressed on CH-C-OLT hepatocytes, whereas HCV proteins, in combination with CNIs, induce high expression of PD-L2 resulting in elevated expression of ICAM-1. These findings demonstrate the effect of CNIs on inducing PD-L2 and subsequent ICAM-1 expression, effects that may produce inflammatory cell infiltration in post-OLT hepatitis C.

Safe and cost-effective control of post-transplantation recurrence of hepatitis B

A combination of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and nucleoside/nucleotide analogs (NUC) is the current standard of care for controlling hepatitis B recurrence after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT). However, long-term HBIG administration is associated with several unresolved issues, including limited availability and extremely high cost, and thus several protocols for treatment with low-dose HBIG combined with NUC or HBIG-free regimens have been developed. This article reviews recent advances in post-OLT hepatitis B virus (HBV) control and future methodological directions. New NUC such as entecavir, tenofovir or lamivudine plus adefovir dipivoxil combinations induce a very low frequency of viral resistance. The withdrawal of HBIG after several months of OLT under new NUC continuation also has permissible effects. Even after HBV reactivation, NUC can usually achieve viral control when viral markers are strictly followed up. Another approach is to induce self-producing anti-HBV antibodies via vaccination with a hepatitis B surface antigen vaccine. However, HBV vaccination is not sufficiently effective in patients to treat liver cirrhosis type B after OLT because immune tolerance to the virus has already continued for several decades. Trials of its safety and cost-effectiveness are required. This review advocates a safe and economical approach to controlling post-OLT HBV recurrence.

Management of chronic hepatitis B in severe liver disease

In the past few decades, chronic hepatitis B (CHB) has evolved from a disease that was untreatable and progressive, to one that can be easily controlled with antiviral therapy. However, patients with severe liver disease still remain difficult to treat despite the availability of highly potent nucleos(t)ide analogs. These include those with underlying cirrhosis, severe flares of CHB, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and for those undergoing liver transplantation. For those with established cirrhosis, antiviral therapy should be considered for all, as unpredictable flares can still occur, which can be fatal for those with advanced chronic liver disease. However, even with effective viral suppression, the development of HCC can still occur. For patients with severe flares of CHB, although the use of antiviral can improve long term outcomes, a significant proportion may still die without liver transplantation. The short term prognosis of these patients is dependent on both the severity of flare and underlying pre-existing liver disease. In patients with decompensated cirrhosis, liver failure secondary to severe flares, or those with HCC, liver transplantation may be curative. After liver transplantation, long term antiviral therapy is required to prevent graft loss from recurrent hepatitis B infection. The use of hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG) in combination with an oral antiviral agent has been the mainstay of post-transplant antiviral regimen for over a decade. With newer and more potent antiviral agents such as tenofovir and entecavir, use of these agents along with HBIG have demonstrated to be effective in preventing significant recurrence in the long term.

Contradictory immune response in post liver transplantation hepatitis B and C

Hepatitis B and C often progress to decompensated liver cirrhosis requiring orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT). After OLT, hepatitis B recurrence is clinically controlled with a combination of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and nucleos(t)ide analogues. Another approach is to induce self-producing anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) antibodies using a HBV envelope antigen vaccine. Patients who had not been HBV carriers such as acutely infected liver failure or who received liver from HBV self-limited donor are good candidate. For chronic HBV carrier patients, a successful response can only be achieved in selected patients such as those treated with experimentally reduced immunosuppression protocols or received an anti-HBV adaptive memory carrying donor liver. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) reinfects transplanted livers at a rate of >90%. HCV reinfected patients show different severities of hepatitis, from mild and slowly progressing to severe and rapidly progressing, possibly resulting from different adaptive immune responses. More than half the patients require interferon treatment, although the success rate is low and carries risks for leukocytopenia and rejection. Managing the immune response has an important role in controlling recurrent hepatitis C. This study aimed to review the adaptive immune response in post-OLT hepatitis B and C.

Treatment of patients with HBV-related decompensated cirrhosis and liver transplanted patients

Antiviral therapy using newer nucleos(t)ide analogs with lower resistance rates could suppress hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication, improve liver function in patients with compensated or decompensated cirrhosis, delay or obviate liver transplantation in some patients, and reduce the risk of HBV recurrence. Some form of HBV prophylaxis needs to be continued indefinitely posttransplant. However, in patients with a low-risk of HBV recurrence it is possible to discontinue hepatitis B immunoglobulins and maintain long-term nucleos(t)ide analog therapy. Currently, treatment of posttransplantation hepatitis B is a less important clinical problem than it was historically because effective antiviral therapies exist to rescue patients who failed initial prophylaxis.

Immunoprophylaxis against and prevention of recurrent viral hepatitis after liver transplantation

The reinfection of the hepatic allograft with hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus can have important sequelae that result in poor long-term patient and graft survival. Although a response to treatment with antiviral medications can improve these outcomes, not all patients tolerate these medications or experience viral eradication. Avoiding reinfection of the graft is the most effective means of improving the long-term outcomes for these patient populations. This review is focused on the prevention of viral hepatitis reinfection after liver transplantation.

Hepatitis B immune globulin in liver transplantation prophylaxis: an update

CONTEXT

Liver transplantation is the best treatment option for end-stage liver disease following hepatitis B (HBV) infection. However, the high rate of recurrence of HBV infection following transplantation is a disadvantage of this option.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Over the past 2 decades, the gold standard of prophylactic treatment for the prevention of HBV re-infection following liver transplantation has been the administration of low- to high-dose hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIg) along with an antiviral agent to induce passive immunity.

RESULTS

The effectiveness of HBIg in preventing the recurrence of HBV depends on the dosage, route of administration, and duration of HBIg treatment, and the viremic status at the time of transplantation. There is currently no consensus on a standardized recommendation for therapeutic options that include HBIg administration.

CONCLUSION

This review attempts to summarize the available data on the feasibility of such options. Most recent studies support the use of long-term combination therapy of HBIg and antiviral NAs (especially new agents).