Curcumin exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties in 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP(+))-stimulated mesencephalic astrocytes by interference with TLR4 and downstream signaling pathway

Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin, with or without L-DOPA, on motor and cognitive functions and hippocampal changes in rotenone-treated rats

The neurodegenerative condition known as Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term condition that causes both motor and non-motor symptoms. It is known that curcumin has a strong neuroprotective potential. This experimental study was designed to examine the anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and neuroprotective effects of curcumin administered alone and in combination with L-DOPA in the hippocampus as well as behavioral symptoms in rotenone-induced PD model. Forty-two 4-month-old adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups as follows: Control, Curcumin, Rotenone, Rotenone plus curcumin, Rotenone plus L-DOPA and Rotenone plus curcumin plus L-DOPA. Control group received vehicles, curcumin group received curcumin (200 mg kg-1, daily for 35 days), rotenone group received rotenone (2 mg kg-1, daily for 35 days), and test groups received curcumin or L-DOPA (10 mg kg-1, daily for the last 15 days) or their combination in addition the rotenone. Pole, sucrose preference, open field, elevated plus maze, and Morris water maze tests were performed after treatment. Molecular and biochemical analyses were performed in the hippocampus tissue and serum samples. Rotenone injection caused impairments in motor activity, depressive-like behavior, and learning and memory functions. Rotenone also increased the expressions of α-synuclein, caspase 3, NF-κB, and decreased the expressions of parkin and BDNF in the hippocampus. However, especially curcumin and L-DOPA combined treatment normalized all these impaired molecular and behavioral variables. In conclusion, curcumin may exert beneficial effects in treatment strategies for PD-related hippocampal effects, especially when added to L-DOPA therapy.

Interferon Regulatory Factors as a Potential Therapeutic Target for Neuroinflammation: A Focus on Alzheimer's Disease

Interferon Regulatory Factors (IRFs) are critical modulators of immune and inflammatory responses, yet their roles in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative disorders remain incompletely understood. While IRFs are recognized for their regulatory functions in neuroinflammation, microglial activation, and neuronal survival, their dual roles as both drivers of pathological inflammation and mediators of neuroprotective pathways underscore a sophisticated regulatory paradox in neurodegenerative disorders. This review aims to synthesize current evidence on IRF-mediated neuroinflammation in AD and related diseases, focusing on the multifaceted functions of key IRF family members, including IRF1, IRF3, and IRF7. We critically evaluate their divergent roles: IRF1 and IRF3, for instance, exacerbate neuroinflammatory cascades and amyloid-beta (Aβ) pathology in AD, whereas IRF7 may paradoxically suppress inflammation under specific conditions. Additionally, we explore IRF dysregulation in Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease, emphasizing shared and distinct mechanisms across neurodegenerative disorders. Restoring IRF balance through genetic manipulation, small-molecule inhibitors, or microbiome-derived modulators could attenuate neuroinflammation, enhance Aβ clearance, and protect neuronal integrity. Ultimately, this work provides a framework for future research to harness IRF signaling pathways in the development of precision therapies for AD and other neurodegenerative diseases.

A Review on Current Aspects of Curcumin-Based Effects in Relation to Neurodegenerative, Neuroinflammatory and Cerebrovascular Diseases

Curcumin is among the most well-studied natural substances, known for its biological actions within the central nervous system, its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and human health benefits. However, challenges persist in effectively utilising curcumin, addressing its metabolism and passage through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in therapies targeting cerebrovascular diseases. Current challenges in curcumin's applications revolve around its effects within neoplastic tissues alongside the development of intelligent formulations to enhance its bioavailability. Formulations have been discovered including curcumin's complexes with brain-derived phospholipids and proteins, or its liposomal encapsulation. These novel strategies aim to improve curcumin's bioavailability and stability, and its capability to cross the BBB, thereby potentially enhancing its efficacy in treating cerebrovascular diseases. In summary, this review provides a comprehensive overview of molecular pathways involved in interactions of curcumin and its metabolites, and brain vascular homeostasis. This review explores cellular and molecular current aspects, of curcumin-based effects with an emphasis on curcumin's metabolism and its impact on pathological conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, schizophrenia, and cerebral angiopathy. It also highlights the limitations posed by curcumin's poor bioavailability and discusses ongoing efforts to surpass these impediments to harness the full therapeutic potential of curcumin in neurological disorders.

Advances of curcumin in nervous system diseases: the effect of regulating oxidative stress and clinical studies

In recent years, researchers have highly observed that neurological disorders (NSDs) with the aging of the population are a global health burden whose prevalence is increasing every year. Previous evidence suggested that the occurrence of neurological disorders is correlated with predisposing factors such as inflammation, aging, and injury. Particularly, the neuronal cells are susceptible to oxidative stress, leading to lesions caused by high oxygen-consuming properties. Oxidative stress (OS) is a state of peroxidation, which occurs as a result of the disruption of the balance between oxidizing and antioxidizing substances. The oxidative intermediates such as free radicals, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and superoxide anion (O2-) produced by OS promote disease progression. Curcumin, a natural diketone derived from turmeric, is a natural antioxidant with a wide range of neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-aging, and antioxidant effects. Fortunately, curcumin is recognized for its potent antioxidant properties and is considered a promising candidate for the prevention and treatment of neurological diseases. Consequently, this review elucidates the mechanisms by which curcumin mitigates oxidative stress and emphasizes the potential in treating nervous system disorders, including depression, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and glioblastoma. We aim to provide a new therapeutic option for the management of neurological diseases.

Therapeutic effect of targeted antioxidant natural products

The exploration of targeted therapy has proven to be a highly promising avenue in the realm of drug development research. The human body generates a substantial amount of free radicals during metabolic processes, and if not promptly eliminated, these free radicals can lead to oxidative stress, disrupting homeostasis and potentially contributing to chronic diseases and cancers. Before the development of contemporary medicine with synthetic pharmaceuticals and antioxidants, there was a long-standing practice of employing raw, natural ingredients to cure a variety of illnesses. This practice persisted even after the active antioxidant molecules were known. The ability of natural antioxidants to neutralise excess free radicals in the human body and so prevent and cure a wide range of illnesses. The term "natural antioxidant" refers to compounds derived from plants or other living organisms that have the ability to control the production of free radicals, scavenge them, stop free radical-mediated chain reactions, and prevent lipid peroxidation. These compounds have a strong potential to inhibit oxidative stress. Phytochemicals (antioxidants) derived from plants, such as polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins, and others, are central to the discussion of natural antioxidants. Not only may these chemicals increase endogenous antioxidant defenses, affect communication cascades, and control gene expression, but they have also shown strong free radical scavenging properties. This study comprehensively summarizes the primary classes of natural antioxidants found in different plant and animal source that contribute to the prevention and treatment of diseases. Additionally, it outlines the research progress and outlines future development prospects. These discoveries not only establish a theoretical groundwork for pharmacological development but also present inventive ideas for addressing challenges in medical treatment.

Curcuma Longa: Nutraceutical Use and Association With Nanotechnology

Curcumin is a natural product found in the rhizome of Curcuma longa (L.) and other Curcuma spp. As a lipophilic molecule, it has greater affinity for polar, non-polar, alkaline, or extremely acidic organic solvents. Several studies indicate that curcumin has several benefits for human health, for example, against degenerative diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases. To obtain a quality product with nutraceutical properties, it is necessary to know its physicochemical characteristics and preserve it from cultivation until ingestion by the human. However, its low solubility leads to low absorption; in this context, nanotechnological systems can contribute to increase curcumin bioavailability. This review aims to highlight important issues in all stages that curcumin goes through: from aspects related to its extraction to its association with nanotechnology. Although curcumin extraction process is already well established, it is possible to observe more and more research focused on increasing yield and being more environmentally friendly. Further, curcumin's low absorption is notable due to its physicochemical characteristics, mainly due to its low aqueous solubility. However, its association with nanotechnology shows to be promising and an increasingly growing trend because the use of this "Indian solid gold" is the hope of many patients.

Modulating the biosynthesis and TLR4-interaction of lipopolysaccharide as an approach to counter gut dysbiosis and Parkinson's disease: Role of phyto-compounds

The prevalence of the world's second leading neurodegenerative disorder Parkinson's disease (PD) is well known while its pathogenesis is still a topical issue to explore. Clinical and experimental reports suggest the prevalence of disturbed gut microflora in PD subjects, with an abundance of especially Gram-negative bacteria. The endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) released from the outer cell layer of these bacteria interacts with the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) present on the macrophages and it stimulates the downstream inflammatory cascade in both the gut and brain. Recent research also suggests a positive correlation between LPS, alpha-synuclein, and TLR4 levels, which indicates the contribution of a parallel LPS-alpha-synuclein-TLR4 axis in stimulating inflammation and neurodegeneration in the gut and brain, establishing a body-first type of PD. However, owing to the novelty of this paradigm, further investigation is mandatory. Modulating LPS biosynthesis and LPS-TLR4 interaction can ameliorate gut dysbiosis and PD. Several synthetic LpxC (UDP-3-O-(R-3-hydroxymyristoyl)-N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase; LPS-synthesizing enzyme) inhibitors and TLR4 antagonists are reported to show beneficial effects including neuroprotection in PD models, however, are not devoid of side effects. Plant-derived compounds have been long documented for their benefits as nutraceuticals and thus to search for effective, safer, and multitarget therapeutics, the present study focused on summarizing the evidence reporting the potential of phyto-compounds as LpxC inhibitors and TLR4 antagonists. Studies demonstrating the dual potential of phyto-compounds as the modulators of LpxC and TLR4 have not yet been reported. Also, very few preliminary studies have reported LpxC inhibition by phyto-compounds. Nevertheless, remarkable neuroprotection along with TLR4 antagonism has been shown by curcumin and juglanin in PD models. The present review thus provides a wide look at the research progressed to date in discovering phyto-compounds that can serve as LpxC inhibitors and TLR4 antagonists. The study further recommends the need for expanding the search for potential candidates that can render dual protection by inhibiting both the biosynthesis and TLR4 interaction of LPS. Such multitarget therapeutic intervention is believed to bring fruitful yields in countering gut dysbiosis, neuroinflammation, and dopaminergic neuron damage in PD patients through a single treatment paradigm.

The regulating effect of curcumin on NF-κB pathway in neurodegenerative diseases: a review of the underlying mechanisms

Neurodegenerative diseases are part of the central nervous system (CNS) disorders that indicate their presence with neuronal loss, neuroinflammation, and increased oxidative stress. Several pathophysiological factors and biomarkers are involved in this inflammatory process causing these neurological disorders. The nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) is an inflammation element, which induced transcription and appears to be one of the important players in physiological procedures, especially nervous disorders. NF-κB can impact upon series of intracellular actions and induce or inhibit many inflammation-related pathways. Multiple reports have focused on the modification of NF-κB activity, controlling its expression, translocation, and signaling pathway in neurodegenerative disorders and injuries like Alzheimer's disease (AD), spinal cord injuries (SCI), and Parkinson's disease (PD). Curcumin has been noted to be a popular anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory substance and is the foremost natural compound produced by turmeric. According to various studies, when playing an anti-inflammatory role, it interacts with several modulating proteins of long-standing disease signaling pathways and has an unprovocative consequence on pro-inflammatory cytokines. This review article determined to figure out curcumin's role in limiting the promotion of neurodegenerative disease via influencing the NF-κB signaling route. Preclinical studies were gathered from plenty of scientific platforms including PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, and Google Scholar to evaluate this hypothesis. Extracted findings from the literature review explained the repressing impact of Curcumin on the NF-κB signaling pathway and, occasionally down-regulating the cytokine expression. Yet, there is an essential need for further analysis and specific clinical experiments to fully understand this subject.

Polyphenols improve non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via gut microbiota: A comprehensive review

Polyphenols, natural micronutrients derived from plants, are valued for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The escalating global prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) underscores its status as a chronic progressive liver condition. Furthermore, the dysregulation of gut microbiota (GM) is implicated in the onset and progression of NAFLD through the actions of metabolites such as bile acids (BAs), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), choline, and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Additionally, GM may influence the integrity of the intestinal barrier. This review aims to evaluate the potential effects of polyphenols on GM and intestinal barrier function, and their subsequent impact on NAFLD. We searched through a wide range of databases, such as Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, and Scopus to gather information for our non-systematic review of English literature. GM functions and composition can be regulated by polyphenols such as chlorogenic acid, curcumin, green tea catechins, naringenin, quercetin, resveratrol, and sulforaphane. Regulating GM composition improves NAFLD by alleviating inflammation, liver fat accumulation, and liver enzymes. Furthermore, it improves serum lipid profile and gut barrier integrity. All of these components affect NAFLD through the metabolites of GM, including SCFAs, choline, LPS, and BAs. Current evidence indicates that chlorogenic acid, resveratrol, quercetin, and curcumin can modulate GM, improving intestinal barrier integrity and positively impacting NAFLD. More studies are necessary to evaluate the safety and efficacy of naringenin, sulforaphane, and catechin.

Research on the signaling pathways related to the intervention of traditional Chinese medicine in Parkinson's disease:A literature review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting more than 10 million people worldwide and is characterized by the progressive loss of Daergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. It has been reported that signaling pathways play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of PD, while the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have been found to possess a protective effect against PD. TCM has demonstrated significant potential in mitigating oxidative stress (OS), neuroinflammation, and apoptosis of DA neurons via the regulation of signaling pathways associated with PD.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This study discussed and analyzed the signaling pathways involved in the occurrence and development of PD and the mechanism of active ingredients of TCM regulating PD via signaling pathways, with the aim of providing a basis for the development and clinical application of therapeutic strategies for TCM in PD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

With "Parkinson's disease", "Idiopathic Parkinson's Disease", "Lewy Body Parkinson's Disease", "Parkinson's Disease, Idiopathic", "Parkinson Disease, Idiopathic", "Parkinson's disorders", "Parkinsonism syndrome", "Traditional Chinese medicine", "Chinese herbal medicine", "active ingredients", "medicinal plants" as the main keywords, PubMed, Web of Science and other online search engines were used for literature retrieval.

RESULTS

PD exhibits a close association with various signaling pathways, including but not limited to MAPKs, NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, Nrf2/ARE, Wnt/β-catenin, TLR/TRIF, NLRP3, Notch. The therapeutic potential of TCM lies in its ability to regulate these signaling pathways. In addition, the active ingredients of TCM have shown significant effects in improving OS, neuroinflammation, and DA neuron apoptosis in PD.

CONCLUSION

The active ingredients of TCM have unique advantages in regulating PD-related signaling pathways. It is suggested to combine network pharmacology and bioinformatics to study the specific targets of TCM. This not only provides a new way for the prevention and treatment of PD with the active ingredients of TCM, but also provides a scientific basis for the selection and development of TCM preparations.

Curcumin abrogates cobalt-induced neuroinflammation by suppressing proinflammatory cytokines release, inhibiting microgliosis and modulation of ERK/MAPK signaling pathway

Curcumin, a bioactive polyphenol derived from turmeric, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory properties. The current study investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin in the hippocampal subfields (CA1 and CA3) after exposure to cobalt (Co) and the impact of ERK protein. Twenty-eight albino Wistar rats were divided into four groups, each with seven randomly selected rats as follows: Control (distilled water), Cobalt (Co) only (40 mg/kg), 120 mg/kg or 240 mg/kg curcumin + Co (40 mg/kg). Treatment was via oral gavage for 28 days. We performed a biochemical investigation to determine the levels of proinflammatory cytokines (TNFα and IL-1β). Furthermore, we conducted an immunohistochemical evaluation to assess the expression of IBA1 by microglial cells and the immunoexpression of ERK protein in the hippocampus. Results revealed a significant (p<0.05) elevation in the tissue level of TNFα and IL-1β, an increase in the number of IBA1-positive microglia, and upregulation of ERK protein in the hippocampal subfields of the rats after exposure to cobalt-only. Nevertheless, pretreatment with curcumin restored these parameters to levels comparable to control. In conclusion, our results showed that curcumin abrogated the Co-induced neuroinflammation by suppressing the release of proinflammatory biomarkers, reducing microgliosis, and modulating the ERK/MAPK pathway.

Phytochemicals as Substances that Affect Astrogliosis and their Implications for the Management of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Astrocytes are a multifunctional subset of glial cells that are important in maintaining the health and function of the central nervous system (CNS). Reactive astrocytes may release inflammatory mediators, chemokines, and cytokines, as well as neurotrophic factors. There may be neuroprotective (e.g., cytokines, like IL-6 and TGF-b) and neurotoxic effects (e.g., IL-1β and TNF-a) associated with these molecules. In response to CNS pathologies, astrocytes go to a state called astrogliosis which produces diverse and heterogenic functions specific to the pathology. Astrogliosis has been linked to the progression of many neurodegenerative disorders. Phytochemicals are a large group of compounds derived from natural herbs with health benefits. This review will summarize how several phytochemicals affect neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease) in basic medical and clinical studies and how they might affect astrogliosis in the process.

Curcumin protects from LPS-induced activation of astrocytes via AMPK pathway

Curcumin, a phenolic pigment, plays an inhibitory role in astrocytes activation which are involved in the pathogenesis of neurological diseases and inflammatory responses. The present study aimed to investigate the underlying regulatory mechanism behind the therapeutic effect of curcumin on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated astrocytes in vitro. Specifically, we investigated the inhibitory effect of curcumin on LPS-induced astrocyte's proliferation. Additionally, we investigated whether the adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase signaling (AMPK) pathway was involved in this process. Our data demonstrated that curcumin significantly increased the level of phosphorylated AMPK protein in LPS-activated astrocytes. In addition, our data demonstrated that curcumin play an inhibitory role on the migration, autophagy, the pro-inflammatory mediators by the AMPK signaling pathway in LPS-activated astrocytes. These results could shed light on understanding of molecular mechanism for the inhibition of curcumin on migration, autophagy, and the pro-inflammatory mediators during the process of astrocyte activation, and might contribute to a promising therapeutic intervention in the neurological diseases-related astrocytes activation.

Role of cytokines and reactive oxygen species in brain aging

Aging is a complex process that produces profound effects on the brain. Although a number of external factors can promote the initiation and progression of brain aging, peripheral and central changes in the immune cells with time, also play an important role. Immunosenescence, which is an age-associated decline in immune function and Inflammaging, a low-grade inflammatory state in the aging brain contribute to an elevation in cytokine and reactive oxygen species production. In this review, we focus on the pro-inflammatory state that is established in the brain as a consequence of these two phenomena and the resulting detrimental changes in brain structure, function and repair that lead to a decline in central and neuroendocrine function.

The Structure Basis of Phytochemicals as Metabolic Signals for Combating Obesity

The consumption of phytochemicals, bioactive compounds in fruits and vegetables, has been demonstrated to ameliorate obesity and related metabolic symptoms by regulating specific metabolic pathways. This review summarizes the progress made in our understanding of the potential of phytochemicals as metabolic signals: we discuss herein selected molecular mechanisms which are involved in the occurrence of obesity that may be regulated by phytochemicals. The focus of our review highlights the regulation of transcription factors toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2), the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) and regulation of microRNAs (miRNA). In this review, the effect of phytochemicals on signaling pathways involved in obesity were discussed on the basis of their chemical structure, suggesting molecular mechanisms for how phytochemicals may impact these signaling pathways. For example, compounds with an isothiocyanate group or an α, β-unsaturated carbonyl group may interact with the TLR4 signaling pathway. Regarding Nrf2, we examine compounds possessing an α, β-unsaturated carbonyl group which binds covalently with the cysteine thiols of Keap1. Additionally, phytochemical activation of PPARs, FTO and miRNAs were summarized. This information may be of value to better understand how specific phytochemicals interact with specific signaling pathways and help guide the development of new drugs to combat obesity and related metabolic diseases.

Curcumin can improve Parkinson's disease via activating BDNF/PI3k/Akt signaling pathways

Parkinson's disease is a common progressive neurodegenerative disease, and presently has no curative agent. Curcumin, as one of the natural polyphenols, has great potential in neurodegenerative diseases and other different pathological settings. The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3k)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathways are significantly involved nerve regeneration and anti-apoptotic activities. Currently, relevant studies have confirmed that curcumin has an optimistic impact on neuroprotection via regulating BDNF and PI3k/Akt signaling pathways in neurodegenerative disease. Here, we summarized the relationship between BDNF and PI3k/Akt signaling pathway, the main biological functions and neuroprotective effects of curcumin via activating BDNF and PI3k/Akt signaling pathways in Parkinson's disease. This paper illustrates that curcumin, as a neuroprotective agent, can delay the progression of Parkinson's disease by protecting nerve cells.

Capecitabine Regulates HSP90AB1 Expression and Induces Apoptosis via Akt/SMARCC1/AP-1/ROS Axis in T Cells

Transplant oncology is a newly emerging discipline integrating oncology, transplant medicine, and surgery and has brought malignancy treatment into a new era via transplantation. In this context, obtaining a drug with both immunosuppressive and antitumor effects can take into account the dual needs of preventing both transplant rejection and tumor recurrence in liver transplantation patients with malignancies. Capecitabine (CAP), a classic antitumor drug, has been shown to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis in tumor cells. Meanwhile, we have demonstrated that CAP can induce ROS production and apoptosis in T cells to exert immunosuppressive effects, but its underlying molecular mechanism is still unclear. In this study, metronomic doses of CAP were administered to normal mice by gavage, and the spleen was selected for quantitative proteomic and phosphoproteomic analysis. The results showed that CAP significantly reduced the expression of HSP90AB1 and SMARCC1 in the spleen. It was subsequently confirmed that CAP also significantly reduced the expression of HSP90AB1 and SMARCC1 and increased ROS and apoptosis levels in T cells. The results of in vitro experiments showed that HSP90AB1 knockdown resulted in a significant decrease in p-Akt, SMARCC1, p-c-Fos, and p-c-Jun expression levels and a significant increase in ROS and apoptosis levels. HSP90AB1 overexpression significantly inhibited CAP-induced T cell apoptosis by increasing the p-Akt, SMARCC1, p-c-Fos, and p-c-Jun expression levels and reducing the ROS level. In conclusion, HSP90AB1 is a key target of CAP-induced T cell apoptosis via Akt/SMARCC1/AP-1/ROS axis, which provides a novel understanding of CAP-induced T cell apoptosis and lays the experimental foundation for further exploring CAP as an immunosuppressant with antitumor effects to optimize the medication regimen for transplantation patients.

Physicochemical investigation of a novel curcumin diethyl γ-aminobutyrate, a carbamate ester prodrug of curcumin with enhanced anti-neuroinflammatory activity

Curcumin is a polyphenol compound that alleviates several neuroinflammation-related diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy and cerebral injury. However, the therapeutic efficacy of curcumin is limited by its poor physicochemical properties. The present study aimed to develop a new carrier-linked curcumin prodrug, curcumin diethyl γ-aminobutyrate (CUR-2GE), with improved physicochemical and anti-neuroinflammatory properties. CUR-2GE was designed and synthesized by conjugating curcumin with gamma-aminobutyric acid ethyl ester (GE) via a carbamate linkage. The carbamate linkage was selected to increase stability at acidic pH while GE served as a promoiety for lipophilic enhancement. The synthesized CUR-2GE was investigated for solubility, partition coefficient, stability, and bioconversion. The solubility of CUR-2GE was less than 0.05 μg/mL similar to that of curcumin, while the lipophilicity with log P of 3.57 was significantly increased. CUR-2GE was resistant to chemical hydrolysis at acidic pH (pH 1.2 and 4.5) as anticipated but rapidly hydrolyzed at pH 6.8 and 7.4. The incomplete hydrolysis of CUR-2GE was observed in simulated gastrointestinal fluids which liberated the intermediate curcumin monoethyl γ-aminobutyric acid (CUR-1GE) and the parent curcumin. In plasma, CUR-2GE was sequentially converted to CUR-1GE and curcumin within 1 h. In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells, CUR-2GE effectively attenuated the pro-inflammatory mediators by decreasing the secretion of nitric oxide and cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) to a greater extent than curcumin due to an increase in cellular uptake. Altogether, the newly developed acid-stable CUR-2GE prodrug is a potential pre-clinical and clinical candidate for further evaluation on neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory effects.

Astrocytic MicroRNA in Ageing, Inflammation, and Neurodegenerative Disease

Astrocytes actively regulate numerous cell types both within and outside of the central nervous system in health and disease. Indeed, astrocyte morphology, gene expression and function, alongside the content of astrocyte-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs), is significantly altered by ageing, inflammatory processes and in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Here, we review the relevant emerging literature focussed on perturbation in expression of microRNA (miRNA), small non-coding RNAs that potently regulate gene expression. Synthesis of this literature shows that ageing-related processes, neurodegenerative disease-associated mutations or peptides and cytokines induce dysregulated expression of miRNA in astrocytes and in some cases can lead to selective incorporation of miRNA into ADEVs. Analysis of the miRNA targets shows that the resulting downstream consequences of alterations to levels of miRNA include release of cytokines, chronic activation of the immune response, increased apoptosis, and compromised cellular functioning of both astrocytes and ADEV-ingesting cells. We conclude that perturbation of these functions likely exacerbates mechanisms leading to neuropathology and ultimately contributes to the cognitive or motor symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases. This field requires comprehensive miRNA expression profiling of both astrocytes and ADEVs to fully understand the effect of perturbed astrocytic miRNA expression in ageing and neurodegenerative disease.

Neuroprotective effects of curcumin on the cerebellum in a rotenone‐induced Parkinson’s Disease Model

Aims

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Mechanistic Insight into the Effects of Curcumin on Neuroinflammation-Driven Chronic Pain

Chronic pain is a persistent and unremitting condition that has immense effects on patients' quality of life. Studies have shown that neuroinflammation is associated with the induction and progression of chronic pain. The activation of microglia and astrocytes is the major hallmark of spinal neuroinflammation leading to neuronal excitability in the projection neurons. Excessive activation of microglia and astrocytes is one of the major contributing factors to the exacerbation of pain. However, the current chronic pain treatments, mainly by targeting the neuronal cells, remain ineffective and unable to meet the patients' needs. Curcumin, a natural plant product found in the Curcuma genus, improves chronic pain by diminishing the release of inflammatory mediators from the spinal glia. This review details the role of curcumin in microglia and astrocytes both in vitro and in vivo and how it improves pain. We also describe the mechanism of curcumin by highlighting the major glia-mediated cascades in pain. Moreover, the role of curcumin on inflammasome and epigenetic regulation is discussed. Furthermore, we discuss the strategies used to improve the efficacy of curcumin. This review illustrates that curcumin modulating microglia and astrocytes could assure the treatment of chronic pain by suppressing spinal neuroinflammation.

Roles of PRR-Mediated Signaling Pathways in the Regulation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Diseases

Oxidative stress is a major contributor to the pathogenesis of various inflammatory diseases. Accumulating evidence has shown that oxidative stress is characterized by the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Previous reviews have highlighted inflammatory signaling pathways, biomarkers, molecular targets, and pathogenetic functions mediated by oxidative stress in various diseases. The inflammatory signaling cascades are initiated through the recognition of host cell-derived damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and microorganism-derived pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). In this review, the effects of PRRs from the Toll-like (TLRs), the retinoic acid-induced gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) and the NOD-like (NLRs) families, and the activation of these signaling pathways in regulating the production of ROS and/or oxidative stress are summarized. Furthermore, important directions for future studies, especially for pathogen-induced signaling pathways through oxidative stress are also reviewed. The present review will highlight potential therapeutic strategies relevant to inflammatory diseases based on the correlations between ROS regulation and PRRs-mediated signaling pathways.

Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in pathophysiology of Parkinson disease: Diverse patterns and mechanisms contributing to neurodegeneration

Parkinson's disease (PD), the most common movement disorder, comprises several pathophysiologic mechanisms including misfolded alpha-synuclein aggregation, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and synaptic loss. Nuclear Factor-Kappa B (NF-κB), as a key regulator of a myriad of cellular reactions, is shown to be involved in such mechanisms associated with PD, and the changes in NF-κB expression is implicated in PD. Alpha-synuclein accumulation, the characteristic feature of PD pathology, is known to trigger NF-κB activation in neurons, thereby propagating apoptosis through several mechanisms. Furthermore, misfolded alpha-synuclein released from degenerated neurons, activates several signaling pathways in glial cells which culminate in activation of NF-κB and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thereby aggravating neurodegenerative processes. On the other hand, NF-κB activation, acting as a double-edged sword, can be necessary for survival of neurons. For instance, NF-κB activation is necessary for competent mitochondrial function and deficiency in c-Rel, one of the NF-κB proteins, is known to propagate DA neuron loss via several mechanisms. Despite the dual role of NF-κB in PD, several agents by selectively modifying the mechanisms and pathways associated with NF-κB, can be effective in attenuating DA neuron loss and PD, as reviewed in this paper.

A State of the Art of Antioxidant Properties of Curcuminoids in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases represent a set of pathologies characterized by an irreversible and progressive, and a loss of neuronal cells in specific areas of the brain. Oxidative phosphorylation is a source of energy production by which many cells, such as the neuronal cells, meet their energy needs. Dysregulations of oxidative phosphorylation induce oxidative stress, which plays a key role in the onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). To date, for most neurodegenerative diseases, there are no resolute treatments, but only interventions capable of alleviating the symptoms or slowing the course of the disease. Therefore, effective neuroprotection strategies are needed. In recent years, natural products, such as curcuminoids, have been intensively explored and studied for their therapeutic potentials in several neurodegenerative diseases. Curcuminoids are, nutraceutical compouns, that owen several therapeutic properties such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. In this context, the aim of this review was to provide an overview of preclinical and clinical evidence aimed to illustrate the antioxidant effects of curcuminoids in neurodegenerative diseases. Promising results from preclinical studies encourage the use of curcuminoids for neurodegeneration prevention and treatment.

Use of medicinal plants for headache, and their potential implication in medication-overuse headache: Evidence from a population-based study in Nepal

Background

In Nepal, traditional treatment using medicinal plants is popular. Whereas medication-overuse headache is, by definition, caused by excessive use of acute headache medication, we hypothesized that medicinal plants, being pharmacologically active, were as likely a cause.

Methods

We used data from a cross-sectional, nationwide population-based study, which enquired into headache and use of medicinal plants and allopathic medications. We searched the literature for pharmacodynamic actions of the medicinal plants.

Results

Of 2100 participants, 1794 (85.4%) reported headache in the preceding year; 161 (7.7%) reported headache on ≥15 days/month, of whom 28 (17.4%) had used medicinal plants and 117 (72.7%) allopathic medication(s). Of 46 with probable medication-overuse headache, 87.0% (40/46) were using allopathic medication(s) and 13.0% (6/46) medicinal plants, a ratio of 6.7:1, higher than the overall ratio among those with headache of 4.9:1 (912/185). Of 60 plant species identified, 49 were pharmacodynamically active on the central nervous system, with various effects of likely relevance in medication-overuse headache causation.

Conclusions

MPs are potentially a cause of medication-overuse headache, and not to be seen as innocent in this regard. Numbers presumptively affected in Nepal are low but not negligible. This pioneering project provides a starting point for further research to provide needed guidance on use of medicinal plants for headache.

Secretogranin III upregulation is involved in parkinsonian toxin-mediated astroglia activation

Environmental neurotoxins such as paraquat (PQ), manganese, and 1-1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) are associated with a higher risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). These parkinsonian toxins exert certain common toxicological effects on astroglia; however, their role in the regulatory functions of astroglial secretory proteins remains unclear. In a previous study, we observed that secretogranin II (SCG2) and secretogranin III (SCG3), which are important components of the regulated secretory pathway, were elevated in PQ-activated U118 astroglia. In the current study, we used the parkinsonian toxins dopamine (DA), active metabolite of MPTP (MPP⁺), MnCl₂, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as inducers, and studied the potential regulation of SCG2 and SCG3. Our results showed that all the parkinsonian toxins except LPS affected astroglial viability but did not cause apoptosis. Exposure to DA, MPP⁺, and MnCl₂ upregulated glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a marker for astrocyte activation, and stimulated the levels of several astrocytic-derived factors. Further, DA, MPP⁺, and MnCl₂ exposure impeded astroglial cell cycle progression. Moreover, the expression of SCG3 was elevated, while its exosecretion was inhibited in astroglia activated by parkinsonian toxins. The level of SCG2 remained unchanged. In combination with our previous findings, the results of this study indicate that SCG3 may act as a cofactor in astrocyte activation stimulated by various toxins, and the regulation of SCG3 could be involved in the toxicological mechanism by which parkinsonian toxins affect astroglia.

Effects of curcumin on neurological diseases: focus on astrocytes

Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells in the central nervous system, and are important players in both brain injury and neurodegenerative disease. Curcumin (1,7-bis[4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl]-1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione), the major active component of turmeric, belongs to the curcuminoid family that was originally isolated from the plant Curcuma longa. Several studies suggest that curcumin may have a beneficial impact on the brain pathology and aging. These effects are due to curcumin's antioxidant, free-radical scavenging, and anti-inflammatory activity. In light of this, our current review aims to discuss the role of astrocytes as essential players in neurodegenerative diseases and suggest that curcumin is capable of direct inhibition of astrocyte activity with a particular focus on its effects in Alexander disease, Alzheimer's disease, ischemia stroke, spinal cord injury, Multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease.

Effect of Morning vs. Evening Turmeric Consumption on Urine Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Obese, Middle-Aged Adults: A Feasibility Study

The circadian rhythm of biological systems is an important consideration in developing health interventions. The immune and oxidative defense systems exhibit circadian periodicity, with an anticipatory increase in activity coincident with the onset of the active period. Spice consumption is associated with enhanced oxidative defense. The objective of this study was to test the feasibility of a protocol, comparing the effects of morning vs. evening consumption of turmeric on urine markers of oxidative stress in obese, middle-aged adults. Using a within-sample design, participants received each of four clock time x treatment administrations, each separated by one week: morning turmeric; evening turmeric; morning control; evening control. Participants prepared for each lab visit by consuming a low-antioxidant diet for two days and fasting for 12 h. Urine was collected in the lab at baseline and one-hour post-meal and at home for the following five hours. The results showed that the processes were successful in executing the protocol and collecting the measurements and that participants understood and adhered to the instructions. The findings also revealed that the spice treatment did not elicit the expected antioxidant effect and that the six-hour post-treatment urine collection period did not detect differences in urine endpoints across treatments. This feasibility study revealed that modifications to the spice treatment and urine sampling timeline are needed before implementing a larger study.

Effect of Curcumin on Protein Damage Induced by Rotenone in Dopaminergic PC12 Cells

Oxidative stress is considered to be a key factor of the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder characterized by reduced dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and accumulated protein aggregates. Rotenone is a worldwide-used pesticide that induces the most common features of Parkinson's by direct inhibition of the mitochondrial complex I. Rotenone-induced Parkinson's models, as well as brain tissues from Parkinson's patients, are characterized by the presence of both lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation markers resulting from the increased level of free radical species. Oxidation introduces several modifications in protein structure, including carbonylation and nitrotyrosine formation, which severely compromise cell function. Due to the link existing between oxidative stress and Parkinson's disease, antioxidant molecules could represent possible therapeutic tools for this disease. In this study, we evaluated the effect of curcumin, a natural compound known for its antioxidant properties, in dopaminergic PC12 cells treated with rotenone, a cell model of Parkinsonism. Our results demonstrate that the treatment of PC12 cells with rotenone causes severe protein damage, with formation of both carbonylated and nitrotyrosine-derived proteins, whereas curcumin (10 µM) co-exposure exerts protective effects by reducing the levels of oxidized proteins. Curcumin also promotes proteasome activation, abolishing the inhibitory effect exerted by rotenone on this degradative system.

Bioactive Polyphenols and Neuromodulation: Molecular Mechanisms in Neurodegeneration

The interest in dietary polyphenols in recent years has greatly increased due to their antioxidant bioactivity with preventive properties against chronic diseases. Polyphenols, by modulating different cellular functions, play an important role in neuroprotection and are able to neutralize the effects of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Interestingly, all these mechanisms are involved in neurodegeneration. Although polyphenols display differences in their effectiveness due to interindividual variability, recent studies indicated that bioactive polyphenols in food and beverages promote health and prevent age-related cognitive decline. Polyphenols have a poor bioavailability and their digestion by gut microbiota produces active metabolites. In fact, dietary bioactive polyphenols need to be modified by microbiota present in the intestine before being absorbed, and to exert health preventive effects by interacting with cellular signalling pathways. This literature review includes an evaluation of the literature in English up to December 2019 in PubMed and Web of Science databases. A total of 307 studies, consisting of research reports, review articles and articles were examined and 146 were included. The review highlights the role of bioactive polyphenols in neurodegeneration, with a particular emphasis on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that are modulated by polyphenols involved in protection from oxidative stress and apoptosis prevention.

The Effect of Nano-Curcumin Supplementation on Pentraxin 3 Gene Expression and Serum Level in Migraine Patients

BACKGROUND

This study was designed to investigate the effect of nano-curcumin supplementation on pentraxin 3 (PTX3) gene exp ression and serum level in migraine patients.

METHODS

The present study, performed as a clinical trial, included 38 episodic migraine patients in two groups that received either nano-curcumin or placebo over a two-month period. At the start and the end of the study, PTX3 gene expression and serum levels were measured.

RESULTS

After two months of treatment, PTX3 gene expression and serum levels were both significantly less in the nano-curcumin than in the placebo group (P= 0.01 and P< 0.001, respectively). No significant gene expression differences were found between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Curcumin may have a potential inhibitory effect on PTX3 gene expression and serum levels in migraine disease and can be considered as an efficient therapy in migraine management.

The Emerging Role of Curcumin in the Modulation of TLR-4 Signaling Pathway: Focus on Neuroprotective and Anti-Rheumatic Properties

Natural products have been used in medicine for thousands of years. Given their potential health benefits, they have gained significant popularity in recent times. The administration of phytochemicals existed shown to regulate differential gene expression and modulate various cellular pathways implicated in cell protection. Curcumin is a natural dietary polyphenol extracted from Curcuma Longa Linn with different biological and pharmacological effects. One of the important targets of curcumin is Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4), the receptor which plays a key role in the modulation of the immune responses and the stimulation of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines production. Different studies have demonstrated that curcumin attenuates inflammatory response via TLR-4 acting directly on receptor, or by its downstream pathway. Curcumin bioavailability is low, so the use of exosomes, as nano drug delivery, could improve the efficacy of curcumin in inflammatory diseases. The focus of this review is to explore the therapeutic effect of curcumin interacting with TLR-4 receptor and how this modulation could improve the prognosis of neuroinflammatory and rheumatic diseases.

Astrocyte-Derived Exosomal microRNA miR-200a-3p Prevents MPP+-Induced Apoptotic Cell Death Through Down-Regulation of MKK4

Astrocytes release exosomes that regulate neuronal cell function. 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺) is a well-known neurotoxin used to induce cell death in in vitro Parkinson's disease models, and microRNA (miRNA) transferred by released exosomes can regulate its mechanisms. Here, we demonstrated that exosomes released from normal astrocytes (ADEXs), but not exosomes derived from MPP⁺-stimulated astrocytes (MPP⁺-ADEXs), significantly attenuate MPP⁺-induced cell death in SH-SY5Y cells and primary mesencephalic dopaminergic neuron cultures, and reduce expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4 (MKK4), an important upstream kinase in the c-Jun N-terminal kinase cell death pathway. Similar neuroprotective results were obtained from primary hippocampal neuron cultures, an in vitro glutamate excitotoxicity model. Through small-RNA sequencing of exosomal miRNA, we identified miR-200a-3p as the most down-regulated miRNA expressed in MPP⁺-ADEXs. miRNA target analysis and reporter assay confirmed that miR-200a-3p targets MKK4 through binding to two independent sites on the 3'-UTR of Map2k4/MKK4 mRNA. Treatment with miR-200a-3p mimic suppressed both MKK4 mRNA and protein expressions, and attenuated cell death in MPP⁺-treated SH-SY5Y cells and glutamate-treated hippocampal neuron cultures. Our results suggest that normal astrocytes release miR-200a-3p which exhibits a neuroprotective effect through down-regulation of MKK4.

Nutraceuticals: An integrative approach to starve Parkinson's disease

The therapeutic approach of multifactorial complex diseases is always a challenge; Parkinson's disease (PD) is a heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorder triggered by genetic and environmental factors, contributing to its etiology. Indeed, several pathogenic mechanisms lead to selective dopaminergic neuronal injury, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, alteration of endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi protein trafficking, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation. Current treatment approaches include mainly dopamine replacement therapy or optimizing dopaminergic transmission; however, these strategies that do not counteract the pathogenic mechanisms underlying PD symptoms and often are less effective over time. Recently, there has been growing interest in the therapeutic use of nutraceuticals, that could represent an integrative approach to the pharmacological standard therapy and specifically affect one or more pathogenic pathways. The intake of nutraceuticals or nutritional modifications are generally safe and can be combined with current common drug therapy in most cases to improve the patient's quality of life and/or mitigate PD symptoms. The current review focuses on several key nutritional compounds and dietary modifications that are effective on several pathogenic pathways involved in PD onset and progression, and further highlights the rationale behind their potential use for the prevention and treatment of PD.

Polyphenols from Food and Natural Products: Neuroprotection and Safety

Polyphenols are naturally occurring micronutrients that are present in many food sources. Besides being potent antioxidants, these molecules may also possess anti-inflammatory properties. Many studies have highlighted their potential role in the prevention and treatment of various pathological conditions connected to oxidative stress and inflammation (e.g., cancer, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders). Neurodegenerative diseases are globally one of the main causes of death and represent an enormous burden in terms of human suffering, social distress, and economic costs. Recent data expanded on the initial antioxidant-based mechanism of polyphenols’ action by showing that they are also able to modulate several cell-signaling pathways and mediators. The proposed benefits of polyphenols, either as protective/prophylactic substances or as therapeutic molecules, may be achieved by the consumption of a natural polyphenol-enriched diet, by their use as food supplements, or with formulations as pharmaceutical drugs/nutraceuticals. It has also been proved that the health effects of polyphenols depend on the consumed amount and their bioavailability. However, their overconsumption may raise safety concerns due to the accumulation of high levels of these molecules in the organism, particularly if we consider the loose regulatory legislation regarding the commercialization and use of food supplements. This review addresses the main beneficial effects of food polyphenols, and focuses on neuroprotection and the safety issues related to overconsumption.

Butein, isoliquiritigenin, and scopoletin attenuate neurodegeneration via antioxidant enzymes and SIRT1/ADAM10 signaling pathway

Neuronal cell death is a key feature of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Plant polyphenols, namely butein, isoliquiritigenin, and scopoletin, have been shown to exhibit various biological activities including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. Herein, butein, isoliquiritigenin, and scopoletin were explored for their neuroprotective properties against oxidative stress-induced human dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cell death. The cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) revealed a reduction in cell viability and increases in apoptosis and levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, pretreatment of SH-SY5Y cells with 5 μM of butein, isoliquiritigenin, or scopoletin protected against the cell death induced by H₂O₂, and decreased the levels of apoptotic cells and ROS. In addition, the levels of SIRT1, FoxO3a, ADAM10, BCL-2, and antioxidant enzymes (catalase and SOD2) were maintained in the cells pretreated with butein, isoliquiritigenin, or scopoletin before H₂O₂ treatment compared to cells without pretreatment and the reference (resveratrol). Molecular docking analysis revealed that the interactions between the activator-binding sites of SIRT1 and the phenolic compounds were similar to those of resveratrol. Taken together, the data suggest that these polyphenolic compounds could be potential candidates for prevention and/or treatment of neurodegeneration.

Neuronal cells exposed to H₂O₂ may undergo increase ROS, reduction in cell viability and cell death. Butein, isoliquiritigenin, and scopoletin ameliorated H₂O₂-induced neurotoxicity by reducing ROS, balancing antioxidants and activating SIRT1-FoxO3a-ADAM10 pathway.

Protective Effect of Ginkgolic Acid in Attenuating LDL Induced Inflammation Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells via Altering the NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) is considered as the significant maker of inflammatory reaction. ox-LDL was reported to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (AS). In the current study, we scrutinize the suppressive effect of ginkgolic acid against ox-LDL induced an oxidative and inflammatory response in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (nPBMCs) and explore the mechanism of action. HMEC-1 cells are treated with ox-LDL in the presence of different concentration of ginkgolic acid. MTT 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay was performed for the estimation of cell viability effect. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), inflammatory cytokines, and NF-κB activity are also estimated. For the hPBMCs assay, the cells were isolated from the healthy volunteers and cultured. The cells were further divided into different group and received the ginkgolic acid. Additionally, ROS, inflammatory marker such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), lipoxygenase (LOX), nitric oxide (NO), cyclooxygenase (COX) protein expression, and mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (VCAM-1) were estimated in the ox-LDL treated group. The result exhibited that ginkgolic acid treatment induced the cell viability boosting in ox-LDL treatment and intracellular ROS significantly decreased by ginkgolic acid. Pro-inflammatory cytokines also downregulated via ginkgolic acid. Moreover, ginkgolic acid reduced the ox-LDL-induced NF-κB. The mRNA and protein expression of TNF-α, IL-6, and VCAM-1 considerably increased in the ox-LDL treated group and ginkgolic acid significantly reduced the mRNA and protein expression. An inflammatory marker such as PGE2, LOX, and NO were increased in the ox-LDL treated group and ginkgolic acid treated group exhibited the reduction of an inflammatory marker. Based on the result, we can conclude that ginkgolic acid significantly reduced and reversed the ox-LDL-induced modulation, suggesting its anti-inflammatory effect via the NF-κB pathway.

Toll-like receptors and their therapeutic potential in Parkinson's disease and α-synucleinopathies

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors which mediate an inflammatory response upon the detection of specific molecular patterns found on foreign organisms and on endogenous damage-related molecules. These receptors play a major role in the activation of microglia, the innate immune cells of the CNS, and are also expressed in peripheral tissues, including blood mononuclear cells and the gut. It is well established that immune activation, in both the brain and periphery, is a feature of Parkinson's disease as well as other α-synucleinopathies. Aggregated forms of α-synuclein can act as ligands for TLRs (particularly TLR2 and TLR4), and hence these receptors may play a critical role in mediating a detrimental immune response to this protein, as well as other inflammatory signals in Parkinson's and related α-synucleinopathies. In this review, the potential role of TLRs in contributing to the progression of these disorders is discussed. Existing evidence comes predominantly from studies in in vitro and in vivo models, as well as analyses of postmortem human brain tissue and pre-clinical studies of TLR inhibitors. This evidence is evaluated in detail, and the potential for therapeutic intervention in α-synucleinopathies through TLR inhibition is discussed.

Macrophage plasticity, polarization and function in response to curcumin, a diet-derived polyphenol, as an immunomodulatory agent

Monocytes and macrophages are important cells of the innate immune system that have diverse functions, including defense against invading pathogens, removal of dead cells by phagocytosis, antigen presentation in the context of MHC class I and class II molecules, and production of various pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and MCP-1. In addition, pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophages clearly play important roles in the progression of several inflammatory diseases. Therefore, therapies that target macrophage polarization and function by either blocking their trafficking to sites of inflammation, or skewing M1 to M2 phenotype polarization may hold clinical promise in several inflammatory diseases. Dietary-derived polyphenols have potent natural anti-oxidative properties. Within this group of polyphenols, curcumin has been shown to suppress macrophage inflammatory responses. Curcumin significantly reduces co-stimulatory molecules and also inhibits MAPK activation and the translocation of NF-κB p65. Curcumin can also polarize/repolarize macrophages toward the M2 phenotype. Curcumin-treated macrophages have been shown to be highly efficient at antigen capture and endocytosis via the mannose receptor. These novel findings provide new perspectives for the understanding of the immunopharmacological role of curcumin, as well as its therapeutic potential for impacting macrophage polarization and function in the context of inflammation-related disease. However, the precise effects of curcumin on the migration, differentiation, polarization and immunostimulatory functions of macrophages remain unknown. Therefore, in this review, we summarized whether curcumin can influence macrophage polarization, surface molecule expression, cytokine and chemokine production and their underlying pathways in the prevention of inflammatory diseases.

Role and mechanisms of cytokines in the secondary brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a common and severe cerebrovascular disease that has high mortality. Few survivors achieve self-care. Currently, patients receive only symptomatic treatment for ICH and benefit poorly from this regimen. Inflammatory cytokines are important participants in secondary injury after ICH. Increases in proinflammatory cytokines may aggravate the tissue injury, whereas increases in anti-inflammatory cytokines might be protective in the ICH brain. Inflammatory cytokines have been studied as therapeutic targets in a variety of acute and chronic brain diseases; however, studies on ICH are limited. This review summarizes the roles and functions of various pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in secondary brain injury after ICH and discusses pathogenic mechanisms and emerging therapeutic strategies and directions for treatment of ICH.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of curcumin in prevention and treatment of disease

Curcumin is a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound present in rhizome of Curcuma longa belonging to the family zingiberaceae. Growing experimental evidence revealed that curcumin exhibit multitarget biological implications signifying its crucial role in health and disease. The current review highlights the recent progress and mechanisms underlying the wide range of pharmacological effects of curcumin against numerous diseases like neuronal, cardiovascular, metabolic, kidney, endocrine, skin, respiratory, infectious, gastrointestinal diseases and cancer. The ability of curcumin to modulate the functions of multiple signal transductions are linked with attenuation of acute and chronic diseases. Numerous preclinical and clinical studies have revealed that curcumin modulates several molecules in cell signal transduction pathway including PI3K, Akt, mTOR, ERK5, AP-1, TGF-β, Wnt, β-catenin, Shh, PAK1, Rac1, STAT3, PPARγ, EBPα, NLRP3 inflammasome, p38MAPK, Nrf2, Notch-1, AMPK, TLR-4 and MyD-88. Curcumin has a potential to prevent and/or manage various diseases due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic properties with an excellent safety profile. In contrast, the anti-cancer effects of curcumin are reflected due to induction of growth arrest and apoptosis in various premalignant and malignant cells. This review also carefully emphasized the pharmacokinetics of curcumin and its interaction with other drugs. Clinical studies have shown that curcumin is safe at the doses of 12 g/day but exhibits poor systemic bioavailability. The use of adjuvant like piperine, liposomal curcumin, curcumin nanoparticles and curcumin phospholipid complex has shown enhanced bioavailability and therapeutic potential. Further studies are warranted to prove the potential of curcumin against various ailments.

Impact of curcumin on toll-like receptors

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have a pivotal role in the activation of innate immune response and inflammation. TLRs can be divided into two subgroups including extracellular TLRs that recognize microbial membrane components (TLR1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 10), and intracellular TLRs that recognize microbial nucleic acids (TLR3, 7, 8, and 9). Curcumin is a dietary polyphenol from Curcuma longa L. that is reputed to have diverse biological and pharmacological effects. Extensive research has defined the molecular mechanisms through which curcumin mediates its therapeutic effects. One newly defined and important target of curcumin is the TLR, where it exerts an inhibitory effect. In the current study, we focus upon the TLR antagonistic effect of curcumin and curcumin's therapeutic effect as mediated via TLR inhibition. The available evidence indicates that curcumin inhibits the extracellular TLR 2 and 4 and intracellular TLR9 and thereby exerts a therapeutic effect in diseases such as cancer, inflammation, infection, autoimmune, and ischemic disease. Curcumin effectively modulates the TLR response and thereby exerts its potent therapeutic effects.

Screening of herbal extracts for TLR2- and TLR4-dependent anti-inflammatory effects

Herbal extracts represent an ample source of natural compounds, with potential to be used in improving human health. There is a growing interest in using natural extracts as possible new treatment strategies for inflammatory diseases. We therefore aimed at identifying herbal extracts that affect inflammatory signaling pathways through toll-like receptors (TLRs), TLR2 and TLR4. Ninety-nine ethanolic extracts were screened in THP-1 monocytes and HeLa-TLR4 transfected reporter cells for their effects on stimulated TLR2 and TLR4 signaling pathways. The 28 identified anti-inflammatory extracts were tested in comparative assays of stimulated HEK-TLR2 and HEK-TLR4 transfected reporter cells to differentiate between direct TLR4 antagonistic effects and interference with downstream signaling cascades. Furthermore, the ten most effective anti-inflammatory extracts were tested on their ability to inhibit nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) translocation in HeLa-TLR4 transfected reporter cell lines and for their ability to repolarize M1-type macrophages. Ethanolic extracts which showed the highest anti-inflammatory potential, up to a complete inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine production were Castanea sativa leaves, Cinchona pubescens bark, Cinnamomum verum bark, Salix alba bark, Rheum palmatum root, Alchemilla vulgaris plant, Humulus lupulus cones, Vaccinium myrtillus berries, Curcuma longa root and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi leaves. Moreover, all tested extracts mitigated not only TLR4, but also TLR2 signaling pathways. Seven of them additionally inhibited translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus. Two of the extracts showed impact on repolarization of pro-inflammatory M1-type to anti-inflammatory M2-type macrophages. Several promising anti-inflammatory herbal extracts were identified in this study, including extracts with previously unknown influence on key TLR signaling pathways and macrophage repolarization, serving as a basis for novel lead compound identification.

Long-term effects of curcumin in the non-human primate brain

Curcumin has recently been shown to be a potential treatment for slowing or ameloriating cognitive decline during aging in our nonhuman primate model of normal aging. In these same monkeys, we studied for the first time the neurological impacts of long-term curcumin treatments using longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Sixteen rhesus monkeys received curcumin or a vehicle control for 14-18 months. We applied a combination of structural and diffusion MRI to determine whether the curcumin resulted in structural or functional changes in focal regions of the brain. The longitudinal imaging revealed decreased microscale diffusivity (mD) measurements mainly in the hippocampus and basal forebrain structures of curcumin treated animals. Changes in generalized fractional anisotropy (GFA) and grey matter density (GMd) measurements indicated an increased grey matter density in cortical ROIs with improved white matter integrity in limbic, cerebellar, and brain stem regions. These findings suggest that noticeable changes in the neuronal environment could be induced from long-term curcumin treatments. Results may provide a neurological basis on the recent findings demonstrating improved spatial working memory and motor function in nonhuman primates.

A synthetic snake-venom-based tripeptide (Glu-Val-Trp) protects PC12 cells from MPP+ toxicity by activating the NGF-signaling pathway

Venom small peptides that target neurotrophin receptors might be beneficial in neurodegeneration, including Parkinsońs disease (PD). Their small size, ease of synthesis, structural stability and target selectivity make them important tools to overcome the limitations of endogenous neurotrophins as therapeutic agents. Additionally, they might be optimized to improve resistance to enzymatic degradation, bioavailability, potency and, mainly, lipophilicity, important to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB). Here, we evaluated the neuroprotective effects and mechanisms of the synthetic snake-venom-based peptide p-BTX-I (Glu-Val-Trp) in PC12 cells treated with MPP⁺ (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium), a dopaminergic neurotoxin that induces Parkinsonism in vivo. The peptide p-BTX-I induced neuritogenesis, which was reduced by (i) k252a, antagonist of the NGF-selective receptor, trkA (tropomyosin receptor kinase A); (ii) LY294002, inhibitor of the PI3 K/AKT pathway and (iii) U0126, inhibitor of the MAPK-ERK pathway. Besides that, p-BTX-I also increased the expression of GAP-43 and synapsin, which are molecular markers of axonal growth and synaptic communication. In addition, the peptide increased the viability and differentiation of cells exposed to MPP⁺, known to inhibit neuritogenesis. Altogether, our findings suggest that the synthetic peptide p-BTX-I protects PC12 cells from MPP⁺ toxicity by a mechanism that mimics the neurotrophic action of NGF. Therefore, the molecular structure of p-BTX-I might be relevant in the development of drugs aimed at restoring the axonal connectivity in neurodegenerative processes.

Local administration of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles effectively inhibits inflammation and bone resorption associated with experimental periodontal disease

There is evidence indicating that curcumin has multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory properties. In vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate that curcumin may attenuate inflammation and the connective tissue destruction associated with periodontal disease. Most of these studies use systemic administration, and considering the site-specific nature of periodontal disease and also the poor pharmacodynamic properties of curcumin, we conducted this proof of principle study to assess the biological effect of the local administration of curcumin in a nanoparticle vehicle on experimental periodontal disease. We used 16 rats divided into two groups of 8 animals according to the induction of experimental periodontal disease by bilateral injections of LPS or of the vehicle control directly into the gingival tissues 3×/week for 4 weeks. The same volume of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles or of nanoparticle vehicle was injected into the same sites 2×/week. µCT analysis showed that local administration of curcumin resulted in a complete inhibition of inflammatory bone resorption and in a significant decrease of both osteoclast counts and of the inflammatory infiltrate; as well as a marked attenuation of p38 MAPK and NF-kB activation. We conclude that local administration of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles effectively inhibited inflammation and bone resorption associated with experimental periodontal disease.

The Potential Protective Effect of Curcumin on Amyloid-β-42 Induced Cytotoxicity in HT-22 Cells

Background

We aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of curcumin (CUR) in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Methods

Mouse hippocampal neuronal cell line HT-22 was treated with Aβ1–42 and/or CUR, and then cell viability was evaluated by cell counting kit 8, Beclin-l level was detected using western blotting, and the formation of autophagosomes was observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Furthermore, transcriptome sequencing and analysis were performed in cells with Aβ1–42 alone or Aβ1–42 + CUR.

Results

Aβ1–42 treatment significantly inhibited cell viability compared with untreated cells (P < 0.01). After treatment for 48 h, CUR remarkably promoted cell viability compared with cell treated with Aβ1–42 alone (P < 0.01). Compared with cells treated with Aβ1–42 alone, the expression of Beclin-1 was slightly reduced in cells with combined treatment of Aβ1–42 with CUR (P < 0.05). Consistently, TEM results showed that CUR inhibited the formation of autophagosomes in cells treated with Aβ1–42. Furthermore, the protein-protein interaction network showed five key genes, including MYC, Cdh1, Acaca, Egr1, and CCnd1, likely involved in CUR effects.

Conclusions

CUR might have a potential neuroprotective effect by promoting cell viability in AD, which might be associated with cell autophagy. Furthermore, MYC, Cdh1, and Acaca might be involved in the progression of AD.