Ethosomes, binary ethosomes and transfersomes of terbinafine hydrochloride: A comparative study

In Vitro and in vivo characterization of nasal pH-Responsive in-situ hydrogel of Candesartan-loaded invasomes as a potential stroke treatment

Candesartan (CDN) is a useful anti-stroke medication because it lowers blood pressure, inflammation, oxidative stress, angiogenesis and apoptosis. However, CDN has limited efficacy due to its low solubility and poor bioavailability. This study set out to develop nasal pH-responsive in situ hydrogel of CDN-loaded invasomes a (PRHCLI) for enhancing CDN's release, penetration, bioavailability, and effectiveness as a possible treatment for stroke. Based on the results of the pre-formulation investigation, the optimum CLI formulation for intravasomal delivery of CDN was determined to be 3% of phospholipid, 0.16% of cholesterol, 3% of ethanol, and 1% of cineole. The optimum formulation significantly enhanced CDN permeation and release by 2.06-fold and 59.06%, respectively. The CLI formulation was added to a mixture of chitosan (0.67%w/v) and glyceryl monooleate (0.27%v/v) to develop PRHCLI. The PRHCLI formulation enhanced the release and permeation of CDN relative to free CDN by 2.15 and 2.76 folds, respectively. An experimental rat stroke model was utilized for in vivo studies to evaluate the bioavailability, effectiveness, and toxicity of the PRHCLI formulation. The nasal PRHCLI drops increased the CDN's bioavailability by 3.20-fold compared to oral free CDN. Increased grip strength and decreased flexion, spontaneous motor activity, and Morris Water Maze scores in comparison to oral free CDN showed that nasal PRHCLI drops have better anti-stroke activity. The toxicity evaluation revealed the safety of nasal PRHCLI. Hence, nasal PRHCLI drops may represent a promising avenue as a stroke therapy.

Minoxidil cyclodextrin inclusion complex-loaded microemulsions and transfersomes for androgen alopecia treatment: a comparative study

Our MXD/SCD@TF designed by the combination of transfersome and inclusion technology was obviously superior to commercial 2% MXD tincture in treating androgenetic alopecia (AGA) in mice, but its complex preparation and poor stability undoubtedly increased both development and usage costs. In this paper, using our previous alcohol-free low surfactant microemulsion technology with VES as auxiliary oil phase, microemulsions loaded with the inclusion complex of MXD and sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin (SBE-β-CD) were prepared, optimized and characterized, and the therapeutic effect on AGA C57BL/6 mice was compared with MXD/SCD@TF. According to the ternary phase diagram, steady-state permeation rate of MXD through SD rat skin and drug retention, MXD/SCD@ME was selected as the optimal prescription, composed of 5.25% oil phase, 9.75% surfactants, 10.20% SBE-β-CD, 1.02% MXD and 73.78% water, which conformed to the characteristics of microemulsion. MXD/SCD@ME had good stability, and the application of inclusion technology increased the MXD loading in microemulsion to nearly 5 times. The results of in vivo skin penetration test and laser confocal scanning visualization showed that MXD/SCD@ME was easier to deliver drugs to deeper skin tissues than MXD/SCD@TF. Hair regeneration study demonstrated that MXD/SCD@ME had higher ability than MXD/SCD@TF in promoting hair growth, prolonging hair growth period, reducing ROS level and promoting cell proliferation of hair follicles. In addition, the blank microemulsion of MXD/SCD@ME had certain therapeutic effect on AGA, indicating the synergistic effect between VES and MXD. All these indicated that MXD/SCD@ME is expected to provide a better choice for pharmacological therapy of MXD on AGA than MXD/SCD@TF.

Development and Evaluation of Azithromycin-Loaded Transethosomes for Enhanced Dermal Delivery and Antibacterial Efficacy

Background/Objectives: The topical delivery of antibiotics through transethosomes shows promise for enhancing its dermal delivery for the treatment of skin infections. This study aimed to develop and characterize azithromycin-loaded transethosomes to enhance topical drug delivery and improve the antibacterial activity of azithromycin. Methods: The prepared azithromycin formulations underwent assessment for various characteristics, including their vesicle dimensions, size distribution, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and morphological features (via TEM analysis). Additionally, their thermal properties were examined through DSC analysis, and their stability was monitored over six months under refrigerated storage conditions. The sequential tape-stripping technique was employed to conduct ex vivo penetration studies on human skin. Interactions between transethosomes and stratum corneum lipids were examined using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). Additionally, the formulations were tested for their in vitro antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus. Results: The findings revealed that AZ 1 and AZ 2 had vesicle sizes of 108.44 ± 5.72 nm and 70.42 ± 6.02 nm, zeta potential measurements of -11.897 ± 1.820 mV and -34.575 ± 4.535 mV, and high entrapment efficiencies of 99.259 ± 0.086% and 99.560 ± 0.014%, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis confirmed the spherical nature of the vesicles, whereas differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) confirmed the successful encapsulation of azithromycin in transethosomes. The formulations exhibited acceptable physical stability at 4 °C for six months. Ex vivo studies revealed a significantly higher deposition of azithromycin in the skin by both transethosome formulations than by the drug solution (p < 0.05), with low systemic absorption. Among the formulations, AZ 2 resulted in much deeper skin penetration, with deeper dermal and epidermal layer deposition (1.388 ± 0.242 µg/cm2) compared to AZ 1 (four-fold higher, p < 0.05) and to the control drug solution (12 times more, p < 0.05). Analysis using ATR-FTIR suggested that azithromycin-loaded transethosomes improve the drug penetration by increasing the lipid fluidity and extracting lipids from the stratum corneum. Moreover, the transethosomes loaded with azithromycin demonstrated enhanced antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values that were lower than those of the free drug solution. Conclusion: The results highlight the promising potential of transethosomes as a novel topical drug delivery system for azithromycin that offers improved therapeutic effects against skin infections.

Comparative Study on Enhanced Skin Permeation Efficiency of Phenylephrine via Novel Lipid Vesicles: A Promising Approach in Preventing Chemotherapy-induced Alopecia Management

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapy-induced alopecia (CIA) significantly impacts patients' emotional and psychological well-being and treatment regimen. Phenylephrine, a topical vasoconstrictor, can potentially reduce hair loss by limiting chemotherapy drug delivery to hair follicles. However, effective delivery of Phenylephrine through the skin remains challenging. This study investigates lipid vesicles as delivery vehicles to enhance Phenylephrine's skin permeation and sustained release due to their biocompatibility and encapsulation capabilities.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to formulate and compare different lipid vesicles of Phenylephrine HCl for enhanced permeation through the skin for deep dermal delivery with sustained release of the drug so as to achieve local vasoconstriction.

METHODS

Phenylephrine-loaded ethosomes, invasomes, and transfersomes were prepared and characterized for particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and entrapment efficiency (EE %). These lipid vesicles were incorporated into hydrogels to facilitate sustained drug release to deep dermal layers where they could target local vasculature and cause vasoconstriction. The prepared vesicular gels were evaluated for various permeation parameters.

RESULTS

The entrapment efficiencies of the developed vesicles ranged from 49.51 ± 3.25% to 69.09 ± 2.32%, with vesicle sizes ranging from 162.5 ± 5.21 nm to 321.32 ± 3.75 nm. Statistical analysis revealed significantly higher flux values (Jss, μg/cm2 h) of 0.6251, 0.6314, and 0.4075 for invasomal gel, ethosomal gel, and transfersomal gel, respectively, compared to plain gel (0.1254) (p < 0.005). The enhancement factors were 4.9848, 5.0350, and 3.2496 for invasomal gel, ethosomal gel, and transfersomal gel, respectively, indicating superior permeation abilities of ethosomal and invasomal formulations.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate that ethosomal and invasomal formulations were efficient in delivering the drug to deep dermal layers of skin in a sustained manner. These findings suggest that these Lipidic vesicles would be able to target the local vasoconstrictor to vasculature, causing reduced hair loss by limiting chemotherapy drug delivery to hair follicles and managing chemotherapy-induced alopecia.

Ethosomes as a carrier for transdermal drug delivery system: methodology and recent developments

Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) have received significant attention in recent years. TDDS are flexible systems that transport active components to the skin for either localized or systemic delivery of drugs through the skin. Among the three main layers of skin, the outermost layer, called the stratum corneum (SC), prevents the entry of water-loving bacteria and drugs with a high molecular weight. The challenge lies in successfully delivering drugs through the skin, which crosses the stratum corneum. The popularity of lipid-based vesicular delivery systems has increased in recent years due to their ability to deliver both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. Ethosomes are specialized vesicles made of phospholipids that can store large amounts of ethanol. Ethosome structure and substance promote skin permeability and bioavailability. This article covers ethosome compositions, types, medication delivery techniques, stability, and safety. In addition to this, an in-depth analysis of the employment of ethosomes in drug delivery applications for a wide range of diseases has also been discussed. This review article highlights different aspects of ethosomes, such as their synthesis, characterization, marketed formulation, recent advancements in TDDS, and applications.

Formulation Development of Meloxicam Binary Ethosomal Hydrogel for Topical Delivery: In Vitro and In Vivo Assessment

The article aimed to formulate an MLX binary ethosome hydrogel for topical delivery to escalate MLX solubility, facilitate dermal permeation, avoid systemic adverse events, and compare the permeation flux and efficacy with the classical type. MLX ethosomes were prepared using the hot method according to the Box-Behnken experimental design. The formulation was implemented according to 16 design formulas with four center points. Independent variables were (soya lecithin, ethanol, and propylene glycol concentrations) and dependent variables (vesicle size, dispersity index, encapsulation efficiency, and zeta potential). The design suggested the optimized formula (MLX-Ethos-OF) with the highest desirability to perform the best responses formulated and validated. It demonstrates a 169 nm vesicle size, 0.2 dispersity index, 83.1 EE%, and -42.76 mV good zeta potential. MLX-Ethos-OF shows an amorphous form in PXRD and a high in vitro drug release of >90% over 7 h by diffusion and erosion mechanism. MLX-Ethos-OF hyaluronic acid hydrogel was fabricated and assessed. It shows an elegant physical appearance, shear thinning system rheological behavior, good spreadability, and skin-applicable pH value. The ex vivo permeation profile shows a flux rate of 70.45 μg/cm2/h over 12 h. The in vivo anti-inflammatory effect was 53.2% ± 1.3 over 5 h. compared with a 10.42 flux rate and 43% inflammatory inhibition of the classical ethosomal type. The conclusion is that binary ethosome is highly efficient for MLX local delivery rather than classical type.

Functional candesartan loaded lipid nanoparticles for the control of diabetes-associated stroke: In vitro and in vivo studies

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease that raises the odds of developing stroke. Candesartan has been used to prevent stroke due to its inhibitory effects on blood pressure, angiogenesis, oxidative damage, and apoptosis. However, oral candesartan has very limited bioavailability and efficacy due to its weak solubility and slow release. The study aimed to develop a nasal formulation of candesartan-loaded liposomes containing ethanol and propylene glycol (CLEP) to improve candesartan's delivery, release, permeation, and efficacy as a potential diabetes-associated stroke treatment. Using design expert software, different CLEP formulations were prepared and evaluated in vitro to identify the optimum formulation, which. The selected optimum formulation composed of 3.3% phospholipid, 10% ethanol, and 15% propylene glycol significantly increased the release and permeation of candesartan relative to free candesartan by a factor of 1.52 and 1.47, respectively. The optimum formulation significantly reduced the infarction after stroke in rats; decreased flexion, spontaneous motor activity, and time spent in the target quadrant by 70%, 64.71%, and 92.31%, respectively, and enhanced grip strength by a ratio of 2.3. Therefore, nasal administration of the CLEP formulation could be a potential diabetes-associated stroke treatment.

Strategies to Improve the Transdermal Delivery of Poorly Water-Soluble Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

The transdermal delivery of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) has the potential to overcome some of the major disadvantages relating to oral NSAID usage, such as gastrointestinal adverse events and compliance. However, the poor solubility of many of the newer NSAIDs creates challenges in incorporating the drugs into formulations suitable for application to skin and may limit transdermal permeation, particularly if the goal is therapeutic systemic drug concentrations. This review is an overview of the various strategies used to increase the solubility of poorly soluble NSAIDs and enhance their permeation through skin, such as the modification of the vehicle, the modification of or bypassing the barrier function of the skin, and using advanced nano-sized formulations. Furthermore, the simple yet highly versatile microemulsion system has been found to be a cost-effective and highly successful technology to deliver poorly water-soluble NSAIDs.

Deformable Vesicles with Edge Activators for the Transdermal Delivery of Non-Psychoactive Cannabinoids

BACKGROUND

Transdermal delivery of highly lipophilic molecules is challenging due to the strong barrier function of the skin. Vesicles with penetration enhancers are safe and efficient systems that could improve the transdermal delivery of non-psychoactive cannabinoids such as cannabidiol and desoxy-cannabidiol. In the last decades, research interest in desoxy-cannabidiol as a potent drug with anti-nociceptive properties has risen. Still, its scarce market availability poses a limit for both research and clinical applications. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the synthesis to produce sufficient amounts of desoxy-cannabidiol. Moreover, also the formulation aspects for this drug are challenging and require to be addressed to meet an efficient delivery to the patients.

OBJECTIVE

This work aimed to develop innovative phospholipid-based vesicles with propylene glycol (PG), oleic acid (OA), or limonene as edge activators, for the transdermal delivery of highly lipophilic drugs such as non-psychoactive cannabinoids. In particular, desoxy-cannabidiol was selected thanks to its anti-nociceptive activity, and its synthesis was improved enhancing the stereoselectivity of its synthon's production.

METHODS

Desoxy-cannabidiol was synthesized by Lewis acid-mediated condensation of p-mentha-2,8-dien- 1-ol and m-pentylphenol, improving the stereoselectivity of the first synthon's production. Transethosomes containing 20-50% w/w PG, 0.4-0.8% w/w OA, or 0.1-1% w/w limonene were optimized and loaded with cannabidiol or desoxy-cannabidiol (0.07-0.8% w/w, 0.6-7.0 mg/mL). Ex-vivo studies were performed to assess both the skin permeation and accumulation of the cannabinoids, as well as the penetration depth of fluorescein- loaded systems used as models.

RESULTS

An enantioselective bromination was added to the pathway, thus raising the production yield of pmentha- 2,8-dien-1-ol to 81% against 35%, and the overall yield of desoxy-cannabidiol synthesis from 12% to 48%. Optimized transethosomes containing 0.6 mg/mL cannabinoids were prepared with 1:10 PG:lipid weight ratio, 0.54 OA:lipid molar ratio, and 0.3 limonene:lipid molar ratio, showing good nanometric size (208 ± 20.8 nm - 321 ± 26.3 nm) and entrapment efficiency (> 80%). Ex-vivo tests showed both improved skin permeation rates of cannabinoids (up to 21.32 ± 4.27 μg/cm2 cannabidiol), and skin penetration (depth of fluorescein up to 240 μm, with PG).

CONCLUSION

Desoxy-cannabidiol was successfully produced at high yields, and formulated into transethosomes optimized for transdermal delivery. Loaded vesicles showed improved skin penetration of desoxy-cannabidiol, cannabidiol and a lipophilic probe. These results suggest the potential of these carriers for the transdermal delivery of highly lipophilic drugs.

Preparation and Characterization of Transethosome Formulation for the Enhanced Delivery of Sinapic Acid

Sinapic acid (SA) is a bioactive phenolic acid; its diverse properties are its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and antibacterial activities. The bioactive compound SA is poorly soluble in water. Our goal was to formulate SA-transethosomes using thin-film hydration. The prepared formulations were examined for various parameters. In addition, the optimized formulation was evaluated for surface morphology, in-vitro penetration studies across the Strat M®, and its antioxidant activity. The optimized formulation (F5) exhibited 74.36% entrapment efficacy. The vesicle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index were found to be 111.67 nm, -7.253 mV, and 0.240, respectively. The surface morphology showed smooth and spherical vesicles of SA-transethosomes. In addition, the prepared SA-transethosomes exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity. The SA-transethosomes demonstrated considerably greater penetration across the Strat M® membrane during the study. The flux of SA and SA-transethosomes through the Strat M® membrane was 1.03 ± 0.07 µg/cm2/h and 2.93 ± 0.16 µg/cm2/h. The enhancement ratio of SA-transethosomes was 2.86 ± 0.35 compared to the control. The SA-transethosomes are flexible nano-sized vesicles and are able to penetrate the entrapped drug in a higher concentration. Hence, it was concluded that SA-transethosome-based approaches have the potential to be useful for accentuating the penetrability of SA across the skin.

Transethosome: An ultra-deformable ethanolic vesicle for enhanced transdermal drug delivery

Drug delivery through the skin improves solubility, bioavailability, and unwanted systemic side effects of the drug. The selection of a suitable carrier is a challenging process. The conventional lipid vesicles have some limitations. They deliver the drug in the stratum corneum and have poor colloidal stability. Here comes the need for ultra-deformable lipid vesicles to provide the drug beyond the stratum corneum. Transethosomes are novel ultra-deformable vesicles that can deliver drugs into deeper tissues. The composition of transethosomes includes phospholipid, ethanol and surfactants. Each ingredient has a pivotal role in the properties of the carrier. This review covers the design, preparation method, characterisation, and characteristics of the novel vesicle. Also, we cover the impact of surfactants on vesicular properties and the skin permeation behaviour of novel vesicles.

Formulation and Therapeutic Evaluation of Isoxsuprine-Loaded Nanoparticles against Diabetes-Associated Stroke

Ischemic stroke is the second-leading cause of death. Hyperglycemia, which is characteristic of diabetes mellitus, contributes to the development of endothelial dysfunction and increases the risk of stroke. Isoxsuprine is an efficient beta-adrenergic agonist that improves blood flow to the ischemic aria and stops the infarct core from growing. However, low bioavailability, a short biological half-life, and first-pass hepatic metabolism reduce the therapeutic efficacy of oral isoxsuprine. Therefore, the authors focused on developing isoxsuprine-loaded liposomes containing ethanol and propylene glycol (ILEP) formulation as nasal drops for the treatment of ischemic stroke in diabetic patients. Different ILEP formulations were optimized using Design Expert software, and the selected formulation was examined in vivo for its anti-stroke effect using a rat model of diabetes and stroke. The optimized ILEP, composed of 15% propylene glycol, 0.16% cholesterol, 10% ethanol, and 3.29% phospholipid, improved the sustainability, permeation, and targeting of isoxsuprine. Furthermore, the in vivo studies verified the improved neurological behavior and decreased dead shrunken neurons and vascular congestion of the rats treated with the optimized ILEP formulation, demonstrating its anti-stroke activity. In conclusion, our study found that treatment with an optimized ILEP formulation prevented the initiation and severity of stroke, especially in diabetic patients.

Exploring Nanocarriers as Treatment Modalities for Skin Cancer

Cancer is a progressive disease of multi-factorial origin that has risen worldwide, probably due to changes in lifestyle, food intake, and environmental changes as some of the reasons. Skin cancer can be classified into melanomas from melanocytes and nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) from the epidermally-derived cell. Together it constitutes about 95% of skin cancer. Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC) are creditworthy of 99% of NMSC due to the limited accessibility of conventional formulations in skin cancer cells of having multiple obstacles in treatment reply to this therapeutic regime. Despite this, it often encounters erratic bioavailability and absorption to the target. Nanoparticles developed through nanotechnology platforms could be the better topical skin cancer therapy option. To improve the topical delivery, the nano-sized delivery system is appropriate as it fuses with the cutaneous layer and fluidized membrane; thus, the deeper penetration of therapeutics could be possible to reach the target spot. This review briefly outlooks the various nanoparticle preparations, i.e., liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, transethosomes, nanoemulsions, and nanoparticles technologies tested into skin cancer and impede their progress tend to concentrate in the skin layers. Nanocarriers have proved that they can considerably boost medication bioavailability, lowering the frequency of dosage and reducing the toxicity associated with high doses of the medication.

Numerical Optimization of Prednisolone-Tacrolimus Loaded Ultraflexible Transethosomes for Transdermal Delivery Enhancement; Box-Behnken Design, Evaluation, Optimization, and Pharmacokinetic Study

The aim of the present study is to formulate highly permeable carriers (i.e., transethosomes) for enhancing the delivery of prednisolone combined with tacrolimus for both topical and systemic pathological conditions. A Box-Behnken experimental design was implemented in this research. Three independent variables: surfactant concentration (X1), ethanol concentration (X2), and tacrolimus concentration (X3) were adopted in the design while three responses: entrapment efficiency (Y1), vesicle size (Y2), and zeta potential (Y3) were investigated. By applying design analysis, one optimum formulation was chosen to be incorporated into topical gel formulation. The optimized transethosomal gel formula was characterized in terms of pH, drug content, and spreadability. The gel formula was challenged in terms of its anti-inflammatory effect and pharmacokinetics against oral prednisolone suspension and topical prednisolone-tacrolimus gel. The optimized transethosomal gel achieved the highest rate of rat hind paw edema reduction (98.34%) and highest pharmacokinetics parameters (Cmax 133.266 ± 6.469 µg/mL; AUC_0-∞ 538.922 ± 49.052 µg·h/mL), which indicated better performance of the formulated gel.

Ethosomes and their monotonous effects on Skin cancer disruption

Skin cancer is one of the most prominent diseases, affecting all continents worldwide, and has shown a significant rise in mortality and prevalence. Conventional therapy, including chemotherapy and surgery, has a few drawbacks. The ethosomal systems would be thoroughly reviewed in this compilation, and they would be classified based on constituents: classical ethosomes, binary ethosomes, and transethosomes. Ethosomes systems are model lipid vesicular carriers with a substantial portion of ethanol. The impacts of ethosomal system components, preparation techniques, and their major roles in selecting the final characteristics of these nanocarriers are comprehensively reviewed in this chapter. The special techniques for ethosomes, including the cold approach, hot approach, injection method, mechanical dispersion method, and conventional method, are explained in this chapter. Various evaluation parameters of ethosomes were also explained. Furthermore, ethosomal gels, patches, and creams can be emphasised as innovative pharmaceutical drug formulations. Some hybrid ethosomal vesicles possessing combinatorial cancer therapy using nanomedicine could overcome the current drug resistance of specific cancer cells. Through the use of repurpose therapy, phytoconstituents may be delivered more effectively. A wide range of in vivo models are employed to assess their effectiveness. Ethosomes have provided numerous potential skin cancer therapeutic approaches in the future.

The Optimized Delivery of Triterpenes by Liposomal Nanoformulations: Overcoming the Challenges

The last decade has witnessed a sustained increase in the research development of modern-day chemo-therapeutics, especially for those used for high mortality rate pathologies. However, the therapeutic landscape is continuously changing as a result of the currently existing toxic side effects induced by a substantial range of drug classes. One growing research direction driven to mitigate such inconveniences has converged towards the study of natural molecules for their promising therapeutic potential. Triterpenes are one such class of compounds, intensively investigated for their therapeutic versatility. Although the pharmacological effects reported for several representatives of this class has come as a well-deserved encouragement, the pharmacokinetic profile of these molecules has turned out to be an unwelcomed disappointment. Nevertheless, the light at the end of the tunnel arrived with the development of nanotechnology, more specifically, the use of liposomes as drug delivery systems. Liposomes are easily synthesizable phospholipid-based vesicles, with highly tunable surfaces, that have the ability to transport both hydrophilic and lipophilic structures ensuring superior drug bioavailability at the action site as well as an increased selectivity. This study aims to report the results related to the development of different types of liposomes, used as targeted vectors for the delivery of various triterpenes of high pharmacological interest.

New repurposed rolapitant in nanovesicular systems for lung cancer treatment: Development, in-vitro assessment and in-vivo biodistribution study

Lung cancer is characterized by poor prognosis, and is considered a serious disease that causes a significant mortality. The available conventional chemotherapeutic agents suffer from several limitations; hence, new drug molecules are constantly being sought. In the current study, lipid nanovesicles (LNVs) were selected as a colloidal vehicle for encapsulation of the FDA-approved drug; rolapitant (RP), which is used particularly for the treatment of nausea and vomiting, but is repurposed for the treatment of lung cancer in the current work. RP was loaded into various LNVs (liposomes, ethosomes and transethosomes) using the thin film hydration method, and the LNVs were evaluated for particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE%), storage stability and surface morphology. Besides, the in-vitro drug release, in-vitro cytotoxicity on A549 lung cancer cells, nebulization performance using next generation impactor (NGI), and the in-vivo biodistribution behaviour were evaluated. The selected ethosomal and transethosomal vesicles displayed a particle size less than 400 nm, a positive charge, and EE% exceeding 90% for RP, with a sustained release pattern over 15 days. The in-vivo biodistribution results proved the high lung deposition potential of RP-LNVs with a considerable safety. Besides, the developed RP-LNVs were able to reach the metastatic organs of lung cancer, hence they were proven promising as a possible treatment modality for lung cancer.

Comprehensive review on use of phospholipid based vesicles for phytoactive delivery

Plant-derived phytoconstituents are well known for their therapeutic potential. It has been experimentally demonstrated that whole-plant extract or isolated phytoconstituents reveal various therapeutic potentials like hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, antitumor, antioxidant, skin protectives, etc. Although these phytoconstituents have potential therapeutic benefits, their use is limited due to their poor bioavailability, stability in biological fluids, and authentication issues. These continue to be an open problem that affects the application of these valuable ancient herbal herbs in the effective treatment and management of various disease conditions. A potential solution to these difficult problems could be the loading of phytoactives in phospholipid-based vesicular systems. Phospholipid-based vesicles like liposomes, phytosomes, ethosomes as well as transfersomes were effectively utilized recently to solve drawbacks and for effective delivery of phytoactives. Several landmark studies observed better therapeutic efficacy of phytoactive loaded vesicles compared to conventional drug delivery. Thus phospholipid-based vesicles mediated phytoactive delivery is a recently developed promising and attractive strategy for better therapeutic control on disease conditions. The present short review highlights recent advances in herbal bioactive loaded phospholipid-based vesicles.

Transfersomes as alternative topical nanodosage forms for the treatment of skin disorders

Topical drug delivery is a promising approach to treat different skin disorders. However, it remains a challenge mainly due to the nature and rigidity of the nanosystems, which limit deep skin penetration, and the unsuccessful demonstration of clinical benefits; greater penetration by itself, does not ensure pharmacological success. In this context, transfersomes have appeared as promising nanosystems; deformability, their unique characteristic, allows them to pass through the epidermal microenvironment, improving the skin drug delivery. This review focuses on the comparison of transfersomes with other nanosystems (e.g., liposomes), discusses recent therapeutic applications for the topical treatment of different skin disorders and highlights the need for further studies to demonstrate significant clinical benefits of transfersomes compared with conventional therapies.

Lipid-based nanoparticles for psoriasis treatment: a review on conventional treatments, recent works, and future prospects

Psoriasis is a lingering inflammatory skin disease that attacks the immune system. The abnormal interactions between T cells, immune cells, and inflammatory cytokines causing the epidermal thickening. International guidelines have recommended topical treatments for mild to moderate psoriasis whilst systemic and phototherapy treatments for moderate to severe psoriasis. However, current therapeutic approaches have a wider extent to treat moderate to severe type of psoriasis especially since the emergence of diverse biologic agents. In the meantime, topical delivery of conventional treatments has prompted many unsatisfactory effects to penetrate through the skin (stratum corneum). By understanding the physiology of stratum corneum barrier functions, scientists have developed different types of lipid-based nanoparticles like solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanovesicles, and nanoemulsions. These novel drug delivery systems help the poorly solubilised active pharmaceutical ingredient reaches the targeted site seamlessly because of the bioavailability feature of the nanosized molecules. Lipid-based nanoparticles for psoriasis treatments create a paradigm for topical drug delivery due to their lipids' amphiphilic feature to efficiently encapsulate both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs. This review highlights different types of lipid-based nanoparticles and their recent works of nano formulated psoriasis treatments. The encapsulation of psoriasis drugs through lipid nanocarriers unfold numerous research opportunities in pharmaceutical applications but also draw challenges for the future development of nano drugs.

Tailoring of Retinyl Palmitate-Based Ethosomal Hydrogel as a Novel Nanoplatform for Acne Vulgaris Management: Fabrication, Optimization, and Clinical Evaluation Employing a Split-Face Comparative Study

AIM

Retinyl palmitate (RP), the most stable vitamin A derivative, is used to treat photoaging and other skin disorders. The need to minimize the adverse effects of topical drug administration has led to an enhanced interest in loading RP on ethosomes for topical drug delivery. The aim of the current study was to prepare and compare the performance of RP decorated ethosomal hydrogel with tretinoin cream in the treatment of acne vulgaris as an approach to improve drug efficacy and decrease its side effects.

METHODS

RP-loaded ethosomes were prepared using the injection sonication technique. A Box-Behnken design using Design Expert® software was used for the optimization of formulation variables. Particle size, zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency percent (EE%), % drug release, and permeation over 24 h of different formulations were determined. The optimal formulation was incorporated into a hydrogel. Finally, the efficacy and tolerability of the optimized RP ethosomal hydrogel were clinically evaluated for acne treatment using a split-face comparative clinical study.

RESULTS

The optimized ethosomal RP showed particle size of 195.8±5.45 nm, ZP of -62.1±2.85 mV, EE% of 92.63±4.33%, drug release % of 96.63±6.81%, and drug permeation % of 85.98 ±4.79%. Both the optimized RP ethosomal hydrogel and tretinoin effectively reduced all types of acne lesions (inflammatory, non-inflammatory, and total lesions). However, RP resulted in significantly lower non-inflammatory and total acne lesion count than the marketed tretinoin formulation. Besides, RP-loaded ethosomes showed significantly improved tolerability compared to marketed tretinoin with no or minimal skin irritation symptoms.

CONCLUSION

RP ethosomal hydrogel is considerably effective in controlling acne vulgaris with excellent skin tolerability. Therefore, it represents an interesting alternative to conventional marketed tretinoin formulation for topical acne treatment.

Ethosomal Gel Formulation of Alpha Phellandrene for the Transdermal Delivery in Gout

Purpose: Purpose was to improve the skin compatibility and permeability of alpha phellandrene through an ethosomal gel formulation for the treatment of gout; as the oral use of the drug is reported to cause gastrointestinal disturbances and toxicities.

Methods: Alpha phellandrene loaded ethosomal formulation (APES) was prepared by cold method for the treatment of gout. APES were loaded into carbopol gel (APEG) by dispersion method. Physico-chemical characterizations of the APES were done by dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) etc. In vitro release, permeation, haemo-compatibility and anti-inflammatory studies were conducted.

Results: APES showed a particle size of 364.83 ± 45.84 nm. The entrapment efficiency of the optimized formulation is found as 95.06 ± 2.51%. Hemolysis data indicated that APES does not cause any significant hemolysis. In vitro drug release studies were carried out using dialysis membrane technique and the amount of drug released from APES & APEG is found to be 95% and 94.21% respectively after 5 and6 hours. Kinetic data analysis revealed that APES & APEG follows first order and zero order release kinetics, respectively. The anti-inflammatory activity studies of the formulation are done by estimating its inhibitory effects on cyclooxygenase II (COX) II, lipoxygenase-5 (LOX-5), Myeloperoxidase (MPO), Inducible nitric oxide synthase (INOS) & cellular nitrite level using RAW 264.7 cells. The significant inhibition in the activities of the enzymes implies the anti-inflammatory activity of the formulations. Skin permeation study was carried out using porcine skin and revealed that the permeation of alpha phellandrene is increased from APES & APEG when compared with alpha-phellandrene solution (APS). Skin deposition study of APS, APES & APEG revealed better drug deposition from APEG (48.799 ± 1.547µg/cm² ) after 24 hours when compared with APS & APES.

Conclusion: Overall results indicate that the ethosomal formulation of alpha phellandrene through transdermal route is an effective alternative for oral use of the drug.

Soft Malleable Vesicles: versatile carriers for efficient topical delivery of fungal therapeutics

Fungal infections have become a subject of great concern and the incidence of fungal infections is increasing, presenting an enormous challenge to healthcare professionals. Since most of the fungal infections are occurring over the skin, the treatment option of these infections always involves topical application. However, in topical delivery drug reaches into systemic circulation through different barriers of skin. Nevertheless, due to the low permeability, skin restricts the movement of many drugs. Hence, a delivery system is required, which deliver the medicament into the skin layers or through the skin and into the systemic circulation. Ethosomes or Soft malleable vesicles are the novel lipid vesicular carrier that offer improved skin permeability and efficient delivery due to their structure and composition. They contain high concentration of ethanol, which increases the fluidity of the skin. Therefore, in the present paper, we have explored the utility of ethosomal systems in the topical treatment of fungal infections. Structure, compositions types, mechanism and techniques of preparation of ethosome also discussed in the paper.

Fabrication of Transgelosomes for Enhancing the Ocular Delivery of Acetazolamide: Statistical Optimization, In Vitro Characterization, and In Vivo Study

Acetazolamide (ACZ) is a potent carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that is used for the treatment of glaucoma. Its oral administration causes various undesirable side effects. This study aimed to formulate transgelosomes (TGS) for enhancing the ocular delivery of ACZ. ACZ-loaded transfersomes were formulated by the ethanol injection method, using phosphatidylcholine (PC) and different edge activators, including Tween 80, Span 60, and Cremophor RH 40. The effects of the ratio of lipid to surfactant and type of surfactant on % drug released after 8 h (Q_8h) and entrapment efficiency (EE%) were investigated by using Design-Expert software. The optimized formula was formulated as TGS, using poloxamers as gelling agents. In vitro and in vivo characterization of ACZ-loaded TGS was performed. According to optimization study, F8 had the highest desirability value and was chosen as the optimized formula for preparing TGS. F8 appeared as spherical elastic nanovesicles with Q_8h of 93.01 ± 3.76% and EE% of 84.44 ± 2.82. Compared to a free drug, TGS exhibited more prolonged drug release of 71.28 ± 0.46% after 8 h, higher ex vivo permeation of 66.82 ± 1.11% after 8 h and a significant lowering of intraocular pressure (IOP) for 24 h. Therefore, TGS provided a promising technique for improving the corneal delivery of ACZ.

Naringin nano-ethosomal novel sunscreen creams: Development and performance evaluation

Long term exposure of skin to UV rays produces detrimental effects such as premature skin-ageing and skin cancer. Although, zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) are good sunscreen agents, they do not provide highly efficient UV radiation protection and antioxidant and anti-aging effects. The present study was aimed at developing and characterizing ethosomes loaded with naringin and then to incorporate them into sunscreen creams containing nano-ZnO and -TiO₂ to achieve adequate skin penetration and skin retention so as to scavenge the free radicals by virtue of naringin's antioxidant property. Ethosomes were prepared and optimized with respect to concentrations of ethanol and cholesterol, time of sonication, drug and lipid ratio and amount of drug. The ethosomes were evaluated for size, zeta potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PDI), encapsulation efficiency and surface morphology. Ethosomal sunscreen creams were evaluated for physicochemical tests, spreadability, antioxidant, cytotoxicity and skin permeation studies. Optimized ethosomal formulation exhibited average vesicle size, PDI, ZP and drug encapsulation efficiency of 142.5 ± 5.6 nm, 0.199 ± 0.007, -72.5 ± 2.9 mV and 33.79 ± 1.35%, respectively. Naringin ethosomes showed enhanced retention in the skin (403.44 ± 15.33 μg/cm²) compared to naringin suspension (202.81 ± 9.45 μg/cm²). The optimized sunscreen cream exhibited SPF of 21.21 ± 0.62 with negligible permeation of naringin across the skin. Ethosomes showed pronounced skin permeation for naringin and optimized cream containing naringin ethosomes along with nano- ZnO and TiO2 showed good skin retention for naringin.

Dermal Targeting Delivery of Terbinafine Hydrochloride Using Novel Multi-Ethosomes: A New Approach to Fungal Infection Treatment

This research aimed to develop and evaluate a novel multi-ethosome (ME) system for the dermal delivery of terbinafine hydrochloride (TH) as a new approach to fungal infection treatment. TH-loaded MEs were successfully prepared using cinnamaldehyde as a penetration enhancer. Mean diameter of ME was found as ~100 nm with monodispersed size distribution. Drug entrapment efficiency reached up to 86% ± 1.4%. MEs exhibited excellent colloid stability and no drug leakage after 2 months of storage. In contrast to a commercial Lamisil® cream, ME significantly improved the targeting efficiency by increasing the fluidity of stratum corneum layer, revealed by attenuated total reflection Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The dermal targeting effect was visualized using confocal microscopy. Moreover, skin irritation and allergy tests showed that ME was not irritating to the skin. The improved antifungal activity of ME was proved in vitro on Candida albicans strains by minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay. This study paves the way towards design of MEs for dermal fungal infection treatment.

Treatment of Basal Cell Carcinoma Via Binary Ethosomes of Vismodegib: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Vismodegib (VMD) is a hedgehog inhibitor which indicated for basal cell skin cancer (BCC). This work focuses on investigating the influence of isopropyl alcohol additive for topical delivering and targeting of VMD-loaded binary ethosomes for BCC treatment. Different binary ethosome formulae were prepared based on Box-Behnken design using different concentrations of phospholipid (A), cholesterol (B) and isopropyl alcohol/total alcohol ratio (C). The prepared formulae were characterized for %entrapment efficiency (R₁), vesicle size (R₂), %release (R₃) and steady-state flux (R₄). Increasing A, B and C resulted in significant increase of R₁ and R₂ and significant decrease of R₃ and R₄. The optimization was achieved and the optimum formula was selected to investigate its anti-tumour efficacy in vivo. The optimum formula showed a localized VMD and consequently a significant anti-tumour activity compared with oral VMD. Briefly, VMD-loaded binary ethosome gel could be an effective treatment of BCC with lower side effects. Graphical abstract.

Liposomes for delivery of antioxidants in cosmeceuticals: Challenges and development strategies

Antioxidants (AOs) play a crucial role in the protection and maintenance of health and are also integral ingredients in beauty products. Unfortunately, most of them are sensitive due to their instability and insolubility. The use of liposomes to protect AOs and expand their applicability to cosmeceuticals, thereby, is one of the most effective solutions. Notwithstanding their offered advantages for the delivery of AOs, liposomes, in their production and application, present many challenges. Here, we provide a critical review of the major problems complicating the development of liposomes for AO delivery. Along with issues related to preparation techniques and encapsulation efficiency, the loss of protective function and inefficiency of skin permeability are the main disadvantages of liposomes. Corresponding development strategies for resolving these problems, with their respective advantages and drawbacks, are introduced, discussed in some depth, and summarized in these pages as well. Advanced liposomes have a vital role to play in the development and delivery of AOs in practical cosmeceutical product applications.

Liposomes with an Ethanol Fraction as an Application for Drug Delivery

Liposomes containing a certain amount of ethanol are often referred to in the literature as ethosomes. Liposomes vary in size from 25 nm to 25,000 nm. Ethosomes are defined as lipids composed of phospholipids, ethanol, or isopropyl alcohol in quite high concentrations, and water. They enable active substances to reach the deep skin layers or even the general circulation. The structure of ethosomes allows for an increased penetration of the drug through two effects: the ethanolic effect and the ethosomal effect. Ethosomes can be obtained using three methods: the hot method, the cold method, and the classic method of mechanical dispersion. The literature describes many of the therapeutic groups of drugs that can be enclosed in ethosomal formulations. These include anti-viral drugs, antineoplastic drugs, antifungal drugs, hypnotic drugs, hormones, and many others. Ethosomes show important practical advantages compared to classic liposomes. It is necessary to conduct research with regard to real pharmaceutical systems using advanced physicochemical techniques.

Transdermal applications of ethosomes - a detailed review

Skin, the largest organ of the body serves as a potential route of drug delivery for local and systemic effects. However, the outermost layer of skin, the stratum corneum (SC) acts as a tough barrier that prevents penetration of hydrophilic and high molecular weight drugs. Ethosomes are a novel phospholipid vesicular carrier containing high ethanol concentrations and offer improved skin permeability and efficient bioavailability due to their structure and composition. This article gives a review of ethosomes including their compositions, types, mechanism of drug delivery, stability, and safety behaviour. This article also provides a detailed overview of drug delivery applications of ethosomes in various diseases.