Association between the angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene insertion/deletion polymorphism and endurance running speed in Japanese runners

Muscle mass, muscle strength and the renin-angiotensin system

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is a classically known circulatory regulatory system. In addition to the previously known multi-organ circulatory form of the RAS, the existence of tissue RASs in individual organs has been well established. Skeletal muscle has also been identified as an organ with a distinct RAS. In recent years, the effects of RAS activation on skeletal muscle have been elucidated from several perspectives: differences in motor function due to genetic polymorphisms of RAS components, skeletal muscle dysfunction under conditions of excessive RAS activation such as heart failure, and the effects of the use of RAS inhibitors on muscle strength. In addition, the concept of the RAS itself has recently been expanded with the discovery of a 'protective arm' of the RAS formed by factors such as angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and angiotensin 1-7. This has led to a new understanding of the physiological function of the RAS in skeletal muscle. This review summarizes the diverse physiological functions of the RAS in skeletal muscle and considers the potential of future therapeutic strategies targeting the RAS to overcome problems such as sarcopenia and muscle weakness associated with chronic disease.

Influence of genetic polymorphism on sports talent performance versus non-athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Talented athletes exhibit remarkable skills and performance in their respective sports, setting them apart from their peers. It has been observed that genetic polymorphisms can influence variations in sports performance, leading to numerous studies aimed at validating genetic markers for identifying sports talents. This study aims to evaluate the potential contribution of genetic factors associated with athletic performance predisposition in identifying sports talents.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA framework, utilizing the PICO methodology to develop the research question. The search was limited to case-control studies published between 2003 and June 2024, and databases such as Medline, LILACS, WPRIM, IBECS, CUMED, VETINDEX, Web of Science, Science Direct, Scopus and Scielo were utilized. The STREGA tool was employed to assess the quality of the selected studies.

RESULTS

A total of 1,132 articles were initially identified, of which 119 studies were included in the review. Within these studies, 50 genes and 94 polymorphisms were identified, showing associations with sports talent characteristics such as endurance, strength, power, and speed. The most frequently mentioned genes were ACTN3 (27.0%) and ACE (11.3%).

CONCLUSION

The ACE I/D and ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms are frequently discussed in the literature. Although athletic performance may be influenced by different genetic polymorphisms, limitations exist in associating them with athletic performance across certain genotypes and phenotypes. Future research is suggested to investigate the influence of polymorphisms in elite athletes from diverse backgrounds and sports disciplines.

Association between Complex ACTN3 and ACE Gene Polymorphisms and Elite Endurance Sports in Koreans: A Case-Control Study

ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms are associated with endurance exercise ability. This case-control study explored the association of ACTN3 and ACE gene polymorphisms with elite pure endurance in Korean athletes, hypothesizing that individuals with both ACTN3 XX and ACE II genotypes would exhibit superior endurance. We recruited 934 elite athletes (713 males, 221 females) and selected 45 pure endurance athletes (36 males, 9 females) requiring "≥90% aerobic energy metabolism during sports events", in addition to 679 healthy non-athlete Koreans (361 males, 318 females) as controls. Genomic DNA was extracted and genotyped for ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms. ACE ID (p = 0.090) and ACTN3 RX+XX (p = 0.029) genotype distributions were significantly different between the two groups. Complex ACTN3-ACE genotypes also exhibited significant differences (p = 0.014), with dominant complex genotypes positively affecting endurance (p = 0.039). The presence of RX+II or XX+II was associated with a 1.763-fold higher likelihood of possessing a superior endurance capacity than that seen in healthy controls (90% CI = 1.037-3.089). Our findings propose an association of combined ACTN3 RX+XX and ACE II genotypes with enhanced endurance performance in elite Korean athletes. While causality remains to be confirmed, our study highlights the potential of ACTN3-ACE polymorphisms in predicting elite endurance.

A critical examination of sport discipline typology: identifying inherent limitations and deficiencies in contemporary classification systems

Exercise scientists (especially in the field of biomolecular research) frequently classify athletic cohorts into categories such as endurance, strength, or mixed, and create a practical framework for studying diverse athletic populations between seemingly similar groups. It is crucial to recognize the limitations and complexities of these classifications, as they may oversimplify the multidimensional characteristics of each sport. If so, the validity of studies dealing with such approaches may become compromised and the comparability across different studies challenging or impossible. This perspective critically examines and highlights the issues associated with current sports typologies, critiques existing sports classification systems, and emphasizes the imperative for a universally accepted classification model to enhance the quality of biomolecular research of sports in the future.

Genomic predictors of physical activity and athletic performance

Physical activity and athletic performance are complex phenotypes influenced by environmental and genetic factors. Recent advances in lifestyle and behavioral genomics led to the discovery of dozens of DNA polymorphisms (variants) associated with physical activity and allowed to use them as genetic instruments in Mendelian randomization studies for identifying the causal links between physical activity and health outcomes. On the other hand, exercise and sports genomics studies are focused on the search for genetic variants associated with athlete status, sports injuries and individual responses to training and supplement use. In this review, the findings of studies investigating genetic markers and their associations with physical activity and athlete status are reported. As of the end of September 2023, a total of 149 variants have been associated with various physical activity traits (of which 42 variants are genome-wide significant) and 253 variants have been linked to athlete status (115 endurance-related, 96 power-related, and 42 strength-related).

Genetic Polymorphisms and Their Impact on Body Composition and Performance of Brazilians in a 105 Km Mountain Ultramarathon

Although the studied polymorphisms affect muscular proteins, aerobic adaptations, and recovery, their influence on the anthropometric variables and performance in ultramarathon runners is still poorly understood. This study aimed to determine the influence of ACTN3 R577X, ACE I/D, and CK MM A/G NcoI polymorphisms on the changes in the anthropometric variables and running time of 105 km mountain runners, in which 22 male Brazilian elite athletes (35.9 ± 6.5 years) were evaluated. Genotyping of the R577X (RR, RX, and XX), ACE I/D (DD, ID, and II), and CK MM A/G Ncol (AA, AG, and GG) polymorphisms was performed using the Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technique with DNA extracted from saliva. Body composition was determined via bioimpedance. Pre- and post-race weight differences were observed on athletes with the AA genotype (77.1 ± 5.9 kg; 74.6 ± 5.6 kg) compared with those with the AG genotype (74.5 ± 8.0 kg; 68 ± 5.1 kg) (p = 0.02; p = 0.02). The RR genotype showed a correlation between BMI and running time (R = 0.97; p = 0.004). The genotype II showed a correlation with % fat and fat mass concerning running time (R = 0.91; p = 0.003; R = 0.99; p < 0.0001). The AA genotype was associated with post-race weight and lean mass loss, while the RR genotype correlated with BMI, and the genotype II correlated with % body fat and fat mass in relation to times in the 105 km mountain ultramarathon.

Genes and Athletic Performance: The 2023 Update

Phenotypes of athletic performance and exercise capacity are complex traits influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. This update on the panel of genetic markers (DNA polymorphisms) associated with athlete status summarises recent advances in sports genomics research, including findings from candidate gene and genome-wide association (GWAS) studies, meta-analyses, and findings involving larger-scale initiatives such as the UK Biobank. As of the end of May 2023, a total of 251 DNA polymorphisms have been associated with athlete status, of which 128 genetic markers were positively associated with athlete status in at least two studies (41 endurance-related, 45 power-related, and 42 strength-related). The most promising genetic markers include the AMPD1 rs17602729 C, CDKN1A rs236448 A, HFE rs1799945 G, MYBPC3 rs1052373 G, NFIA-AS2 rs1572312 C, PPARA rs4253778 G, and PPARGC1A rs8192678 G alleles for endurance; ACTN3 rs1815739 C, AMPD1 rs17602729 C, CDKN1A rs236448 C, CPNE5 rs3213537 G, GALNTL6 rs558129 T, IGF2 rs680 G, IGSF3 rs699785 A, NOS3 rs2070744 T, and TRHR rs7832552 T alleles for power; and ACTN3 rs1815739 C, AR ≥21 CAG repeats, LRPPRC rs10186876 A, MMS22L rs9320823 T, PHACTR1 rs6905419 C, and PPARG rs1801282 G alleles for strength. It should be appreciated, however, that elite performance still cannot be predicted well using only genetic testing.

Prevalence of Polymorphism and Post-Training Expression of ACTN3 (R/X) and ACE (I/D) Genes in CrossFit Athletes

BACKGROUND

CrossFit is known as a functional fitness training high-intensity exercise to improve physical performance. The most studied polymorphisms are the ACTN3 R577X gene, known for speed, power, and strength, and ACE I/D, related to endurance and strength. The present investigation analyzed the effects of training on ACTN3 and ACE gene expression in CrossFit athletes for 12 weeks.

METHODS

the studies included 18 athletes from the Rx category, where ACTN3 (RR, RX, XX) and ACE (II, ID, DD) characterization of genotypes and tests of maximum strength (NSCA), power (T-Force), and aerobic endurance (Course Navette) were performed. The technique used was the reverse transcription-quantitative PCR real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) for the relative expression analysis.

RESULTS

the relative quantification (RQ) values for the ACTN3 gene increased their levels 2.3 times (p = 0.035), and for ACE, they increased 3.0 times (p = 0.049).

CONCLUSIONS

there is an overexpression of the ACTN3 and ACE genes due to the effect of training for 12 weeks. Additionally, the correlation of the expression of the ACTN3 (p = 0.040) and ACE (p = 0.030) genes with power was verified.

Novel Insights into Mitochondrial DNA: Mitochondrial Microproteins and mtDNA Variants Modulate Athletic Performance and Age-Related Diseases

Sports genetics research began in the late 1990s and over 200 variants have been reported as athletic performance- and sports injuries-related genetic polymorphisms. Genetic polymorphisms in the α-actinin-3 (ACTN3) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) genes are well-established for athletic performance, while collagen-, inflammation-, and estrogen-related genetic polymorphisms are reported as genetic markers for sports injuries. Although the Human Genome Project was completed in the early 2000s, recent studies have discovered previously unannotated microproteins encoded in small open reading frames. Mitochondrial microproteins (also called mitochondrial-derived peptides) are encoded in the mtDNA, and ten mitochondrial microproteins, such as humanin, MOTS-c (mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA type-c), SHLPs 1-6 (small humanin-like peptides 1 to 6), SHMOOSE (Small Human Mitochondrial ORF Over SErine tRNA), and Gau (gene antisense ubiquitous in mtDNAs) have been identified to date. Some of those microproteins have crucial roles in human biology by regulating mitochondrial function, and those, including those to be discovered in the future, could contribute to a better understanding of human biology. This review describes a basic concept of mitochondrial microproteins and discusses recent findings about the potential roles of mitochondrial microproteins in athletic performance as well as age-related diseases.

Genetics of long-distance runners and road cyclists-A systematic review with meta-analysis

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to identify the genetic variants of (inter)national competing long-distance runners and road cyclists compared with controls. The Medline and Embase databases were searched until 15 November 2021. Eligible articles included genetic epidemiological studies published in English. A homogenous group of endurance athletes competing at (inter)national level and sedentary controls were included. Pooled odds ratios based on the genotype frequency with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated using random effects models. Heterogeneity was addressed by Q-statistics, and I² . Sources of heterogeneity were examined by meta-regression and risk of bias was assessed with the Clark Baudouin scale. This systematic review comprised of 43 studies including a total of 3938 athletes and 10 752 controls in the pooled analysis. Of the 42 identified genetic variants, 13 were investigated in independent studies. Significant associations were found for five polymorphisms. Pooled odds ratio [95%CI] favoring athletes compared with controls was 1.42 [1.12-1.81] for ACE II (I/D), 1.66 [1.26-2.19] for ACTN3 TT (rs1815739), 1.75 [1.34-2.29] for PPARGC1A GG (rs8192678), 2.23 [1.42-3.51] for AMPD1 CC (rs17602729), and 2.85 [1.27-6.39] for HFE GG + CG (rs1799945). Risk of bias was low in 25 (58%) and unclear in 18 (42%) articles. Heterogeneity of the results was low (0%-20%) except for HFE (71%), GNB3 (80%), and NOS3 (76%). (Inter)national competing runners and cyclists have a higher probability to carry specific genetic variants compared with controls. This study confirms that (inter)national competing endurance athletes constitute a unique genetic make-up, which likely contributes to their performance level.

Genetic polymorphisms related to muscular strength and flexibility are associated with artistic gymnastic performance in the Japanese population

This study aimed to examine how genetic polymorphisms related to muscular strength and flexibility influence artistic gymnastic performance in an attempt to identify a novel polymorphism associated with flexibility. In study 1, the passive straight-leg-raise (PSLR) score and aromatase gene CYP19A1 rs936306 polymorphism, a key enzyme for estrogen biosynthesis, were assessed in 278 individuals. In study 2, athletes (281 gymnasts and 1908 other athletes) were asked about their competition level, and gymnasts were assessed using the difficulty score (D-score) for each event. Muscular strength- (ACTN3 R577X rs1815739 and ACE I/D rs4341) and flexibility-related (ESR1 rs2234693 T/C and CYP19A1 rs936306 C/T) genetic polymorphisms were analyzed. In study 1, males with the CYP19A1 CT + TT genotype showed significantly higher PSLR scores than those with the CC genotype. In study 2, male gymnasts with the R allele of ACTN3 R577X showed a correlation with the floor, rings, vault, and total D-scores. In addition, male gymnasts with the C allele of ESR1 T/C and T allele of CYP19A1 C/T polymorphisms were correlated with the pommel horse, parallel bars, horizontal bar, and total D-scores. Furthermore, genotype scores of these three polymorphisms correlated with the total D-scores and competition levels in male gymnasts. In contrast, no such associations were observed in female gymnasts. Our findings suggest that muscular strength- and flexibility-related polymorphisms play important roles in achieving high performance in male artistic gymnastics by specifically influencing the performance of events that require muscular strength and flexibility, respectively. HighlightsEstrogen-related CYP19A1 polymorphism is a novel determinant of flexibility in males.Muscular strength- and flexibility-related polymorphisms play important roles in high performance in male artistic gymnastics.Genotypes of ACTN3 R577X, ESR1 rs2234693, and CYP19A1 rs936306 may contribute to training plan optimization and event selection in artistic gymnastics.

Advances in sports genomics

Sports genomics is the scientific discipline that focuses on the organization and function of the genome in elite athletes, and aims to develop molecular methods for talent identification, personalized exercise training, nutritional need and prevention of exercise-related diseases. It postulates that both genetic and environmental factors play a key role in athletic performance and related phenotypes. This update on the panel of genetic markers (DNA polymorphisms) associated with athlete status and soft-tissue injuries covers advances in research reported in recent years, including one whole genome sequencing (WGS) and four genome-wide association (GWAS) studies, as well as findings from collaborative projects and meta-analyses. At end of 2020, the total number of DNA polymorphisms associated with athlete status was 220, of which 97 markers have been found significant in at least two studies (35 endurance-related, 24 power-related, and 38 strength-related). Furthermore, 29 genetic markers have been linked to soft-tissue injuries in at least two studies. The most promising genetic markers include HFE rs1799945, MYBPC3 rs1052373, NFIA-AS2 rs1572312, PPARA rs4253778, and PPARGC1A rs8192678 for endurance; ACTN3 rs1815739, AMPD1 rs17602729, CPNE5 rs3213537, CKM rs8111989, and NOS3 rs2070744 for power; LRPPRC rs10186876, MMS22L rs9320823, PHACTR1 rs6905419, and PPARG rs1801282 for strength; and COL1A1 rs1800012, COL5A1 rs12722, COL12A1 rs970547, MMP1 rs1799750, MMP3 rs679620, and TIMP2 rs4789932 for soft-tissue injuries. It should be appreciated, however, that hundreds and even thousands of DNA polymorphisms are needed for the prediction of athletic performance and injury risk.

A meta-analysis on the association of ACE and PPARA gene variants and endurance athletic status

BACKGROUND

Genetics has an important role in determining the athletic ability and endurance performance potential. This study aimed to investigate the variable results obtained from endurance athletes and control participants in terms of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARA) polymorphism distributions.

METHODS

Multiple electronic databases were investigated independently by two researchers. A meta-analysis was conducted on the association of ACE insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism and PPARA G/C polymorphisms with endurance athletes. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated. Twenty-six studies were identified for the ACE I/D for 2979 endurance athletes and 10048 control participants while seven studies were identified for PPARA G/C for 901 endurance athletes and 2292 control participants.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in ACE genotype distribution between endurance athletes and control (II vs. ID+DD: OR=1.48; 95% CI=0.30-2.67; p=0.001). On the other hand, there was no a significant difference in PPARA G/C polymorphism genotype distribution between endurance athletes and control (GC+CC vs. GG: OR=0.93; 95% CI=-0.46-2.32; p=0.192; GC+GG vs CC: OR=0.62; 95% CI=-1.75-2.99; p=0.604).

CONCLUSIONS

The results have shown that ACE I/D polymorphism may be associated with endurance performance in sports and that the predominance of the ACE II genotype in a person may play an advantageous role in being an endurance athlete. However, this effect has not been observed in PPARA G/C polymorphism.

Influence of ACE Gene I/D Polymorphism on Cardiometabolic Risk, Maximal Fat Oxidation, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Diet and Physical Activity in Young Adults

There is controversy about the relationship between ACE I/D polymorphism and health. Seventy-four healthy adults (n = 28 women; 22.5 ± 4.2 years) participated in this cross-sectional study aimed at determining the influence of ACE I/D polymorphism, ascertained by polymerase chain reaction, on cardiometabolic risk (i.e., waist circumference, body fat, blood pressure (BP), glucose, triglycerides, and inflammatory markers), maximal fat oxidation (MFO), cardiorespiratory fitness (maximal oxygen uptake), physical activity and diet. Our results showed differences by ACE I/D polymorphism in systolic BP (DD: 116.4 ± 11.8 mmHg; ID: 116.7 ± 6.3 mmHg; II: 109.4 ± 12.3 mmHg, p = 0.035) and body fat (DD: 27.3 ± 10.8%; ID: 22.6 ± 9.7%; II: 19.3 ± 7.1%, p = 0.030). Interestingly, a genotype*sex interaction in relativized MFO by lean mass (p = 0.048) was found. The DD polymorphism had higher MFO values than ID/II polymorphisms in men (8.4 ± 3.0 vs. 6.5 ± 2.9 mg/kg/min), while the ID/II polymorphisms showed higher R-MFO values than DD polymorphism in women (6.6 ± 2.3 vs. 7.6 ± 2.6 mg/kg/min). In conclusion, ACE I/D polymorphism is apparently associated with adiposity and BP, where a protective effect can be attributed to the II genotype, but not with cardiorespiratory fitness, diet and physical activity. Moreover, our study highlighted that there is a sexual dimorphism in the influence of ACE I/D gene polymorphism on MFO.

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Related-Polymorphisms on Inflammation, Muscle and Myocardial Damage After a Marathon Race

Muscle damage is one of the most important factors that affect muscle fatigue during endurance exercise. Recent evidence suggests that the renin–angiotensin system impacts on skeletal muscle wasting. The aim of this study was to determine association between the AGT Met235Thr, ACE I/D and BDKRB2 −9/+9 polymorphisms with inflammation, myocardial and muscle injury induced by endurance exercise. Eighty-one Brazilian male runners participated in this study and completed the International Marathon of Sao Paulo. Muscle and myocardial damage markers (alanine transaminase, ALT, aspartate transaminase, AST, lactic dehydrogenase, LDH, creatine kinase, CK, Troponin, pro BNP, myoglobin, and CK-MB) and inflammatory mediators (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL12p70, IL1β, and TNF-α) were determined one day before, immediately after, one day after, and three days after the event. Muscle damage was also determined fifteen days after race and angiotensinogen (AGT) Met235Thr, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) I/D, and Bradykinin B2 receptor (BDKRB2) −9/+9 polymorphisms were determined. Marathon race participation induced an increase in all muscle damage and inflammatory markers evaluated (p < 0.0001). The muscle damage markers, troponin and pro BNP, CK and LDH and inflammatory markers, IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β and IL-10 were also higher in ACE II genotype immediately after race, compared to DD genotype. The percentage of runners higher responders (>500U/I) to CK levels was higher for II genotypes (69%) compared to DD and ID genotypes (38% and 40%, respectively) immediately after. Troponin, pro BNP and IL-1β, IL-8 levels were also elevated in AGT MM genotype compared to TT genotype athletes after and/or one day after race. BDKRB2 −9/−9 had pronounced response to LDH, CK, CK-MB and ALT and AST activities, myoglobin, troponin, IL-6, IL-8 levels immediately, one day and/or three days after race. The percentage of runners higher responders (>500U/I) to CK levels was greater for −9−9 and −9+9 genotypes (46 and 48%, respectively) compared to +9+9 genotypes (31%) immediately after. ACE II, AGT MM, and BDKRB2 −9−9 genotypes may increase the susceptibility to inflammation, muscle injury after endurance exercise and could be used to predict the development of clinical conditions associated with muscle damage and myocardial injury.

Impact of angiotension I converting enzyme gene I/D polymorphism on running performance, lipid, and biochemical parameters in ultra-marathoners

The insertion (I) or deletion (D) polymorphism in the angiotension I converting enzyme gene, (ACE I/D, rs1799752) is associated with human exercise endurance and performance. However, most of the aforementioned studies focus on marathons, swimming, and triathlons, while the ACE polymorphism in ultra-marathoners has not yet been reported. We studied the impact of ACE I/D polymorphism in ultra-marathoners and investigated its relationship with lipid profiles, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) levels in runners before and after ultra-marathon racing.This observational study used data from a 100-km ultra-marathon in Taipei, Taiwan. Twenty-four male participants were analyzed for their ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism, lipid profiles, hs-CRP, IL-6 in serum immediately before and after ultra-marathon running.In our 24 subjects analyzed, 7, 14, and 3 subjects were of I/I, I/D, and D/D genotypes, respectively. Runners with the D polymorphism (I/D and D/D) showed a trend of better performance in the 100-km ultra-marathon (measured by completion time in minutes, P = .036). In this group, the previous best marathon performance was also significantly better than the I/I group (P = .047). After adjusting for body mass index (BMI), the difference in performance was not significant. Ketone levels, IL-6, and hs-CRP levels were highly increased at immediately and 24-hour post-race. No correlation was found between different ACE polymorphisms and common biochemical parameters examined.We report the first study in the impact of the ACE I/D (rs1799752) on ultra-marathoners. Presence of the D polymorphism in ACE gene is associated with better performance, although the BMI of the runners contribute as a major factor. There was no difference in the biochemical or lipid parameters measured among different ACE polymorphisms.

Performance prediction models based on anthropometric, genetic and psychological traits of Croatian sprinters

Elite athletes differ from each other in their characteristics according to their discipline. This study aimed to identify performance predictors in elite Croatian sprinters taking into consideration their anthropometric, psychological and genetic characteristics. One hundred and four elite Croatian sprinters (68 males and 36 females) participated in this study. Of them, 38 are currently competing in the 100-metre dash. The others are former sprinters. The participants underwent direct anthropometric assessment. Participants were also tested by means of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and for ACE and ACTN3 polymorphisms. Multiple linear regression analysis was applied to identify the best model for performance prediction. Different models were developed for males and females. Anthropometric traits accounted for 44% of the variance in performance for males, 62% for females. Once other traits (psychological for females) were entered into the model, no additional contribution to the variance was observed. The most significant predictors of higher running velocity were bicristal diameter and foot dimensions in males, and leg length and clean one-repetition maximum in females. The findings suggest that performance in sprinters is associated with anthropometric characteristics, with biomechanical implications that may be used to provide a more complete evaluation of sprinters' performance.

An innovative way to highlight the power of each polymorphism on elite athletes phenotype expression

The purpose of this study was to determine the probability of soccer players having the best genetic background that could increase performance, evaluating the polymorphism that are considered Performance Enhancing Polymorphism (PEPs) distributed on five genes: PPARα, PPARGC1A, NRF2, ACE e CKMM. Particularly, we investigated how each polymorphism works directly or through another polymorphism to distinguish elite athletes from non-athletic population. Sixty professional soccer players (age 22.5 ± 2.2) and sixty healthy volunteers (age 21.2± 2.3) were enrolled. Samples of venous blood was used to prepare genomic DNA. The polymorphic sites were scanned using PCR-RFLP protocols with different enzyme. We used a multivariate logistic regression analysis to demonstrate an association between the five PEPs and elite phenotype. We found statistical significance in NRF2 (AG/GG genotype) polymorphism/soccer players association (p < 0.05) as well as a stronger association in ACE polymorphism (p =0.02). Particularly, we noticed that the ACE ID genotype and even more the II genotype are associated with soccer player phenotype. Although the other PEPs had no statistical significance, we proved that some of these may work indirectly, amplifying the effect of another polymorphism; for example, seems that PPARα could acts on NRF2 (GG) enhancing the effect of the latter, notwithstanding it had not shown a statistical significance.

In conclusion, to establish if a polymorphism can influence the performance, it is necessary to understand how they act and interact, directly and indirectly, on each other.

Role of selected polymorphisms in determining muscle fiber composition in Japanese men and women

Genetic polymorphisms and sex differences are suggested to affect muscle fiber composition; however, no study has investigated the effects of genetic polymorphisms on muscle fiber composition with respect to sex differences. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of genetic polymorphisms on muscle fiber composition with respect to sex differences in the Japanese population. The present study included 211 healthy Japanese individuals (102 men and 109 women). Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis to determine the proportion of myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms (MHC-I, MHC-IIa, and MHC-IIx). Moreover, we analyzed polymorphisms in α-actinin-3 gene (ACTN3; rs1815739), angiotensin-converting enzyme gene (ACE; rs4341), hypoxia-inducible factor 1 α gene (rs11549465), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 gene (rs1870377), and angiotensin II receptor, type 2 gene (rs11091046), by TaqMan single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping assays. The proportion of MHC-I was 9.8% lower in men than in women, whereas the proportion of MHC-IIa and MHC-IIx was higher in men than in women (5.0 and 4.6%, respectively). Men with the ACTN3 RR + RX genotype had a 4.8% higher proportion of MHC-IIx than those with the ACTN3 XX genotype. Moreover, men with the ACE ID + DD genotype had a 4.7% higher proportion of MHC-I than those with the ACE II genotype. Furthermore, a combined genotype of ACTN3 R577X and ACE insertion/deletion (I/D) was significantly correlated with the proportion of MHC-I (r = −0.23) and MHC-IIx (r = 0.27) in men. In contrast, no significant correlation was observed between the examined polymorphisms and muscle fiber composition in women. These results suggest that the ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms independently affect the proportion of human skeletal muscle fibers MHC-I and MHC-IIx in men but not in women.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY In men, the RR + RX genotype of the α-actinin-3 gene (ACTN3) R577X polymorphism was associated with a higher proportion of myosin heavy chain (MHC)-IIx. The ID + DD genotype of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene (ACE) insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism, in contrast to a previous finding, was associated with a higher proportion of MHC-I in men. In addition, the combined genotype of these polymorphisms was correlated with the proportion of MHC-I and MHC-IIx in men. Thus ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms influence the muscle fiber composition in Japanese men.

Lack of association between genotype score and sprint/power performance in the Japanese population

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine the association between a total genotype score (TGS) based on previously published genetic polymorphism candidates and differences in sprint/power performance.

DESIGN

Case-control association study.

METHODS

We analysed 21 polymorphisms, which have previously been associated with sprint/power performance and related phenotypes, in 211 Japanese sprint/power track and field athletes (77 regional, 72 national, and 62 international athletes) and 649 Japanese controls using the TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. We calculated the TGS (maximum value of 100 for the theoretically optimal polygenic score) for the 21 polymorphisms.

RESULTS

All groups exhibited similar TGSs (control: 55.9±7.2, regional: 55.1±7.1, national: 56.1±7.4, and international: 56.0±7.8, p=0.827 by one-way analysis of variance). Nine of the 21 polymorphisms had the same direction of effect (odds ratio >1.0) as in previous studies, while 12 had the opposite direction of effect (odds ratio <1.0). Three polymorphisms (rs699 in AGT, rs41274853 in CNTFR, and rs7832552 in TRHR), which had the same direction of effect as in previous studies, were associated with international sprint/power athlete status (p<0.05). However, after multiple testing corrections, the statistical significance of these polymorphisms was not retained.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that TGSs based on the 21 previously published sprint/power performance-associated polymorphisms did not influence the sprint/power athlete status of Japanese track and field athletes. However, our results maintain the possibility that three of these polymorphisms might be associated with sprint/power performance.

Current Progress in Sports Genomics

Understanding the genetic architecture of athletic performance is an important step in the development of methods for talent identification in sport. Research concerned with molecular predictors has highlighted a number of potentially important DNA polymorphisms contributing to predisposition to success in certain types of sport. This review summarizes the evidence and mechanistic insights on the associations between DNA polymorphisms and athletic performance. A literature search (period: 1997-2014) revealed that at least 120 genetic markers are linked to elite athlete status (77 endurance-related genetic markers and 43 power/strength-related genetic markers). Notably, 11 (9%) of these genetic markers (endurance markers: ACE I, ACTN3 577X, PPARA rs4253778 G, PPARGC1A Gly482; power/strength markers: ACE D, ACTN3 Arg577, AMPD1 Gln12, HIF1A 582Ser, MTHFR rs1801131 C, NOS3 rs2070744 T, PPARG 12Ala) have shown positive associations with athlete status in three or more studies, and six markers (CREM rs1531550 A, DMD rs939787 T, GALNT13 rs10196189 G, NFIA-AS1 rs1572312 C, RBFOX1 rs7191721 G, TSHR rs7144481 C) were identified after performing genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of African-American, Jamaican, Japanese, and Russian athletes. On the other hand, the significance of 29 (24%) markers was not replicated in at least one study. Future research including multicenter GWAS, whole-genome sequencing, epigenetic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic profiling and performing meta-analyses in large cohorts of athletes is needed before these findings can be extended to practice in sport.

Association between the PPARGC1A polymorphism and aerobic capacity in Japanese middle-aged men

OBJECTIVE

A lower frequency for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PPARGC1A) Ser482 allele has been reported in elite-level endurance athletes among Caucasians, although this gene polymorphism has not been found to be associated with aerobic capacity in German, Dutch or Chinese populations. The purpose of the current study was to examine the associations between the Gly482Ser polymorphism and aerobic fitness in 112 Japanese middle-aged men.

METHODS

The PPARGC1A Gly482Ser polymorphism was identified according to a TaqMan(®) SNP genotyping assay. Habitual physical activity was objectively measured using an accelerometer. The lactate threshold (LT), an index of aerobic fitness, was measured based on a submaximal graded exercise test performed on an electric cycle ergometer. The association between the LT and the Gly482Ser polymorphism was assessed according to a multiple regression analysis and analysis of covariance, with adjustment for potential confounders (age, body mass index, cigarette smoking, physical activity level and regular exercise).

RESULTS

A significant association was observed between the PPARGC1A Gly482Ser polymorphism and LT, as carriers of the Ser482 had higher LT values than the Gly482 carriers.

CONCLUSION

The current results suggest that the PPARGC1A Ser482 allele is associated with a higher aerobic capacity in Japanese middle-aged men.

Evaluation of ACE gene I/D polymorphism in Iranian elite athletes

Background:

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is an important gene, which is associated with the successful physical activity. The ACE gene has a major polymorphism (I/D) in intron 16 that determines its plasma and tissue levels. In this study, we aimed to determine whether there is an association between this polymorphism and sports performance in our studied population including elite athletes of different sports disciplines. We investigated allele frequency and genotype distribution of the ACE gene in 156 Iranian elite athletes compared to 163 healthy individuals. We also investigated this allele frequency between elite athletes in three functional groups of endurance, power, and mixed sports performances.

Materials and Methods:

DNA was extracted from peripheral blood, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method was performed on intron 16 of the ACE gene. The ACE genotype was determined for each subject. Statistical analysis was performed by SPSS 15, and results were analyzed by Chi-Square test.

Results:

There was a significant difference in genotype distribution and allele frequency of the ACE gene in athletes and control group (P = 0.05, P = 0.03, respectively). There was also a significant difference in allele frequency of the ACE gene in 3 groups of athletes with different sports disciplines (P = 0.045). Proportion of the ACE gene D allele was greater in elite endurance athletes (37 high-distance cyclists) than two other groups.

Conclusions:

Findings of the present study demonstrated that there is an association between the ACE gene I/D polymorphism and sports performance in Iranian elite athletes.

The association between ace gene variation and aerobic capacity in winter endurance disciplines

The aim of the study was to examine the possible relationship between I/D polymorphism of ACE gene and selected indices of aerobic capacity among male and female athletes practising winter endurance sports. Sixty-six well-trained athletes (female n = 26, male n = 40), aged 18.4 ± 2.8 years, representing winter endurance sports (cross-country skiing, n = 48; biathlon, n = 8; Nordic combined, n = 10) participated in the study. Genotyping for ACE I/D polymorphism was performed using polymerase chain reaction. Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), maximal running velocity (Vmax) and running velocity at anaerobic threshold (VAT4) were determined in an incremental test to volitional exhaustion on a motorized treadmill. The ACE genotype had no significant effect on absolute VO2max, relative VO2max (divided by body mass or fat free body mass), VAT4 or Vmax. No interaction effect of gender x ACE genotype was found for each of the examined aerobic capacity indices. ACE gene variation was not found to be a determinant of aerobic capacity in either female or male Polish, well-trained endurance athletes participating in winter sports.

The association of sport performance with ACE and ACTN3 genetic polymorphisms: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Genetic polymorphism is suggested to be associated with human physical performance. The angiotensin I-converting enzyme insertion/deletion (ACE I/D) polymorphism and the α-actinin-3 gene (ACTN3) R577X polymorphism have been most widely studied for such association analysis. However, the findings are frequently heterogeneous. We aim to summarize the associations of ACE I/D and ACTN3 R577X with sport performance by means of meta-analysis.

Methods

We systematically reviewed and quantitatively summarized published studies, until October 31, 2012, on relationship between ACE/ACTN3 genetic polymorphisms and sports performance, respectively.

Results

A total of 366 articles on ACE and 88 articles on ACTN3 were achieved by literature search. A significant association was found for ACE II genotype compared to D allele carriage (DD+ID) with increased possibility of physical performance (OR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.05–1.45). With respect to sport discipline, the II genotype was found to be associated with performance in endurance athletes (OR, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.17–1.55). On the other hand, no significant association was observed for ACTN3 RR genotype as compared to X allele carriage (XX+RX) (OR, 1.03; 95% CI, 0.92–1.15). However, when restricted the analyses to power events, a significant association was observed (OR, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.03–1.42).

Conclusion

Our results provide more solid evidence for the associations between ACE II genotype and endurance events and between ACTN3 R allele and power events. The findings suggest that the genetic profiles might influence human physical performance.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme I/D gene polymorphism affects early cardiac response to professional training in young footballers

BACKGROUND

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system plays a role in physiological and pathological responses of the heart to both static and dynamic exercise. Previous studies showed that the level of angiotensin II is determined by the angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion (ACE I/D) polymorphism.

AIM

We aimed in this study to determine the effect of ACE I/D gene polymorphism on the extent of functional and structural cardiac changes in response to one year of professional football training in young footballers.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We studied 68 young male football players and a comparable control group. Besides medical history and clinical examination, 12 lead ECG and transthoracic 2D echocardiography examination were performed. Genotyping of ACE was analyzed using PCR-based technique. There was no statistically significant difference in distribution of genotypes among athletes compared with control subjects. D allele showed a graded effect on both EF (73.55, 67.5 and 60.2%, p=0.03) and PASP (37.6, 26.1 and 21.39 mmHg, p=0.02) in DD, ID and II subjects, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Early cardiac changes in young footballers can be affected by ACE I/D polymorphism. There is a summative effect of the D allele in increasing EF and PASP in response to professional football training.

Genomics of elite sporting performance: what little we know and necessary advances

Numerous reports of genetic associations with performance- and injury-related phenotypes have been published over the past three decades; these studies have employed primarily the candidate gene approach to identify genes that associate with elite performance or with variation in performance-and/or injury-related traits. Although generally with small effect sizes and heavily prone to type I statistic error, the number of candidate genetic variants that can potentially explain elite athletic status, injury predisposition, or indeed response to training will be much higher than that examined by numerous biotechnology companies. Priority should therefore be given to applying whole genome technology to sufficiently large study cohorts of world-class athletes with adequately measured phenotypes where it is possible to increase statistical power. Some of the elite athlete cohorts described in the literature might suffice, and collectively, these cohorts could be used for replication purposes. Genome-wide association studies are ongoing in some of these cohorts (i.e., Genathlete, Russian, Spanish, Japanese, United States, and Jamaican cohorts), and preliminary findings include the identification of one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP; among more than a million SNPs analyzed) that associates with sprint performance in Japanese, American (i.e., African American), and Jamaican cohorts with a combined effect size of ~2.6 (P-value <5×10(-7)) and good concordance with endurance performance between select cohorts. Further replications of these signals in independent cohorts will be required, and any replicated SNPs will be taken forward for fine-mapping/targeted resequencing and functional studies to uncover the underlying biological mechanisms. Only after this lengthy and costly process will the true potential of genetic testing in sport be determined.

Candidate genes for physical performance in the horse

Intense selection for speed, endurance or pulling power in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) has resulted in a number of adaptive changes in the phenotype required for elite athletic performance. To date, studies in humans have revealed a large number of genes involved in elite athletic performance, but studies in horses are rare. The horse genome assembly and bioinformation tools for genome analyses have been used to compare human performance genes with their equine orthologues, both to retrieve pathways for these genes and to investigate their chromosomal distribution. In this review, 28 candidate genes for equine performance are presented that have polymorphisms associated with human elite athletic performance and may have impact on athletic performance in horses. A significant accumulation of candidate genes was found on horse chromosomes 4 and 12. Genes involved in pathways for focal adhesion, regulation of actin cytoskeleton, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, and calcium signalling were over-represented. Genome-wide association studies for athletic performance in horses may benefit from the strong conserved synteny of the chromosomal arrangement of genes in humans and horses.