A socio-ecological assessment aiming at improved forest resource management and sustainable ecotourism development in the mangroves of Tanbi Wetland National Park, The Gambia, West Africa

The composition, distribution, and socio-economic dimensions of Ghana's mangrove ecosystems

Mangrove ecosystems are recognised as one of the nature-based solutions to a changing climate. Notwithstanding the socio-ecological benefits of mangrove ecosystems, they are increasingly being destructed in some regions of the world. In Ghana, several studies have reported on the status, use, and management strategies of mangrove ecosystems in different sites of the country. However, these studies do not make it possible to appreciate the broader picture of Ghana's mangrove ecosystems since they are not synthesized into a single comprehensive report. This study uses the ROSES method for systematic reviews to report on Ghana's mangrove ecosystem distribution and species composition, as well as their socio-economic benefits, the anthropogenic and natural impacts on Ghana's mangrove ecosystems, and the management strategies and/or practices on Ghana's mangrove ecosystems. The study reveals there is no existing management strategy for Ghana's mangrove ecosystems, and therefore recommends the need to develop and implement policies and regulations that specifically target the protection and sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems in Ghana.

Does mangrove vegetation structure reflect human utilization of ecosystem goods and services?

Many coastal communities in developing countries depend on mangrove ecosystem services (ES). A combination of anthropogenic and environmental stresses threatens mangroves globally. This study at the Ankobra catchment communities in Ghana focused on the relation between ES utilization and mangrove forest structure. Through vegetation survey, we observed significant effects of selective logging, branch cutting, density of Acrostichum aureum, and water stress on tree stocking and sapling densities. We observed through interviews in five communities that about 98% and 88% of mangrove wood harvested are used for fuelwood and construction respectively. The vegetation structure of the forest areas receiving high harvesting pressures was less complex, with lower tree and sapling density, as well as lower seed-bearing trees than less-disturbed areas. Existing mangrove harvesting regulations are compromised to accommodate the needs of the surrounding communities. Recognizing these impacts is important to improve management decisions, address community needs, and reduce pressure on mangroves.

Policies and socioenvironmental dynamics for ecosystem management

The continuous loss of biodiversity has extended the Convention on Biological Diversity's target towards safeguarding 30% of the planet by 2030 with some form of protected area management. This is a challenge, considering the poor compliance of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets reported in several assessments, and that 37% of the remaining unprotected natural areas are inhabited by indigenous and local communities. Modern conservation policies tend to convert areas destined for protection into complex socioecological landscapes, so it is critical to develop policies capable of establishing long-term harmonious relations between local societies and their environments. Despite the fundamental importance of defining this interrelation, methodologies for evaluating it are still unclear. We propose a method for assessing the outcome of policies in socioenvironmental practices based on a historical-political ecology analysis of a region, the construction of socioenvironmental scenarios, and comparing populations scattered through the study area. Each "scenario" is a relation between nature and society after a shift in public policies. Conservation scientists, environmental managers, and policymakers can use this methodology to assess old policies, design new ones, or map the socioenvironmental dynamics in their area of interest. Here, we detail this approach and illustrate its application in the coastal wetlands of Mexico. The method can be outlined as follows:•Deduce socioenvironmental epochs for a region by analysing its historical political ecology.•Analyse the socioenvironmental dynamics in selected case studies scattered through the region.•Use the resulting scenarios as conceptual bridges between internal policies and current socioenvironmental dynamics.

The benefits of Q + PPGIS for coupled human-natural systems research: A systematic review

Managing complex problems in socio-ecological systems (SES) requires innovative approaches, which account for multiple scales, large datasets, and diverse lived experiences. By combining two commonly utilized mixed-methods, public participation GIS (PPGIS) and Q-method (Q), Q + PPGIS has the potential to reveal competing agendas and reduce conflict, but its benefits and weaknesses are comparatively understudied. Using a systematic review, we evaluated how different studies have employed and implemented the Q + PPGIS method. We found 16 studies, comprising 30 publications, with considerable variation in their geographic foci, research disciplines, and addressed SES challenges. These studies exhibit a lack of cohesion between methodological design and implementation and the absence of a consistent application of the method. Nonetheless, Q + PPGIS offers a tool that can guide policy, better inform stakeholders, and reduce conflict based on misconceptions. Resolving the shortcomings identified here will broaden Q + PPGIS utility in geographically situating and representing multiple realities within complex socio-ecological systems challenges.

A qualitative systematic review of governance principles for mangrove conservation

Management of mangrove ecosystems is complex, given that mangroves are both terrestrial and marine, often cross regional or national boundaries, and are valued by local stakeholders in different ways than they are valued on national and international scales. Thus, mangrove governance has had varying levels of success, analyzed through concepts such as principles of good governance and procedural justice in decision-making. Although there is substantial research on case studies of mangrove management, global comparisons of mangrove governance are lacking. This research aims to fill this gap by comparing relationships among qualities of governance across mangrove social-ecological systems worldwide. Through a systematic literature search and screening process, we identified 65 articles that discussed mangrove governance and conservation. Case studies in these articles, drawn from 39 countries, were categorized as top-down, bottom-up, or comanaged and thematically coded to assess the influence of eight principles of good governance in mangrove conservation success. Across all three governance systems, the principles of legitimacy, fairness, and integration were most important in determining conservation success or failure. These principles are closely related to the concept of procedural justice, highlighting the importance of stakeholder inclusion throughout all stages of mangrove management. Thus, we recommend clearly defined roles for all governance actors, transparent communication of policy development to stakeholders, fairness in both process and outcome, and careful consideration of sustainable access to conservation resources.

Mangroves Fueling Livelihoods: A Socio-Economic Stakeholder Analysis of the Charcoal and Pole Production Systems in the World’s Longest Managed Mangrove Forest

The declining mangrove cover worldwide highlights the necessity of understanding the linkages between ecological and socio-economic dimensions of mangrove management. This study analyses the socio-economic aspects of the pole and charcoal production systems at Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR), known as the world’s longest managed mangrove forest, in Malaysia. We performed a socio-economic survey to identify the roles and relationships among stakeholders in the pole/charcoal production system and quantified the cash-flows in monetary value. Altogether, 160 interviews were conducted with contractors, forest officials, workers, middle-men, and consumers. The contractors are functioning as a “hub” from production to commercialization and receive major economic benefits. The commercialization of most charcoal (>80%) aims to its exportation to Japan while the commercialization of poles is local. Although the workers’ income was less than the minimum wage, they still prefer charcoal production jobs because of the availability and geographic proximity of these jobs. Our research suggests a standard salary and health insurance schemes for the workers to reduce social inequality/poverty and improve their well-being. Considering that mangroves occur in over 120 countries, our methodology can be used as a reference to unveil the socio-economic situation of mangrove-dependent communities as well as to map the economic cash-flow of the local activities that form the basis for long-term sustainable mangrove management plans.

Do Local Residents Support the Development of a National Park? A Study from Nanling National Park Based on Social Impact Assessment (SIA)

Over the past five years, the pilot establishment of national parks in China has been a major event in global biodiversity conservation. The national parks under construction and proposed account for nearly 1% of the land area, and their social impacts have attracted the attention of researchers and managers. However, most of the research has a focus on the effects of protection, and national parks do not have a sufficient understanding of the social impacts and perceptions of the local residents. This research, taking Nanling National Park in Guangdong Province as the case, used the social impact assessment research framework to explore the perceptions and support of local people for the creation of national parks. Through questionnaires and in-depth interviews, the findings were first that most residents expressed a low awareness of Nanling National Park’s development, but they still expressed conditional support. Second, ethnic minorities and less educated residents did not support the creation of national parks. Perceptions of ecological, economic, political, and cultural impacts affected whether residents supported the construction of national parks. In the initial stages of national park development, governmental administrative departments should reduce the negative impacts of national park construction by strengthening the publicity and awareness building, formulating appropriate policy guidance for different needs, and giving local residents the right to express their views, so as to enhance resident support for national park projects.

Using Historical Archives and Landsat Imagery to Explore Changes in the Mangrove Cover of Peninsular Malaysia between 1853 and 2018

Archive records such as maps, journals, books, sketches, cadastre and notarial documents have been underutilised in describing past and present changes in ecological systems, such as mangrove forests. Historical records can be invaluable information sources for baseline establishment, to undertake long-term study on mangrove dynamics and enhance the historical land cover and land-use dynamics of a country. In this study, we explore these untapped information reservoirs, used complementarily with remote sensing techniques, to explain the dynamics of the mangrove systems in Peninsular Malaysia. The archives in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Malaysia and Singapore were explored and mined for related information on the mangrove systems in Peninsular Malaysia from past centuries. Most historical records found in this study were used to validate the mangrove presence in Peninsular Malaysia since 1853 while two records from 1944 and 1954 were used to quantify the mangrove cover extent. A significant finding of this study was the oldest record found in 1853 that attested to the presence of a mangrove system on the mainland Penang of Peninsular Malaysia which was not identified again as such in records post-1853. Remote sensing data, specifically Landsat images, were used to determine the mangrove extent in Peninsular Malaysia for the years 1988, 1992, 2002, 2012 and 2018. By complementing the historical records with remote sensing information, we were able to validate the mangrove presence in Peninsular Malaysia since 1853 and determine the gain/loss of mangrove systems over the last 74 years. Peninsular Malaysia has lost over 400 km2 of mangrove forests, equivalent to 31% of its original extent between 1944 and 2018. This is a significant loss for Peninsular Malaysia which has less than 1% mangrove cover of its total land area presently.

Does ecotourism in a Mangrove area at Klong Kone, Thailand, conform to sustainable tourism? A case study using SWOT and DPSIR

This study aimed to assess ecotourism in a mangrove area and whether it conformed with sustainable tourism. We were interested in exploring the demand for natural resources and the supply of areas for ecotourism. To achieve this, we integrated a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis with the DPSIR (driving forces, pressures, states, impacts, and responses) framework, based on questionnaire interviews with three target groups (tourists, homestay operators, and community residents), plus in-depth interviews with local scholars and officers of administrative organizations. Supplementary data recorded included the physical characteristics of local homestays and houses. The results were analyzed statistically and the ecotourism carrying capacity of the area was assessed, based on the SWOT analysis. Internal factors included key strengths, e.g., the income associated with nature-supporting tourism, and key weaknesses, e.g., local stakeholders' awareness and understanding of ecological mechanisms. External factors included opportunities arising from tourism policies and public relations and threats from town and urban planning and pollution from nearby areas. The DPSIR framework was used to rank the scores of each DPSIR dimension, with the responses identifying DPSIR indicators prioritized. Finally, a conceptual DPSIR model of ecotourism, which illustrated the ecotourism lifecycle, was developed.

Local Ecological Knowledge on Mangroves in Mayotte Island (Indian Ocean) and Influencing Factors

The majority of studies on local ecological knowledge (LEK) relate to communities or groups relying on ecosystem(s) for their livelihood. In our case study, Mayotte Island, a French overseas department, very few people rely on mangrove ecosystem for natural resources but most of them are attached to it because of leisure activities and beliefs. The questions on mangrove LEK generally deal with a single aspect of ecological knowledge of surveyed people and is mixed with other information such as harvesting practices, anthropogenic impacts, and management issues. The aim of our study is to better understand the level of ecological knowledge of surveyed inhabitants of Mayotte and to assess whether factors linked to the profile of respondents have an influence on it. For this purpose, we carried out two main survey campaigns in three villages fringing two stable mangroves of Mayotte: the first one consisted of qualitative interviews and the second one, questionnaires lending quantitative results. Cross tabulations and Chi square tests of independence were carried out to determine the link between LEK and influencing factors. Results show that some LEK implying localized observation, such as the identification of mangrove trees and the knowledge of the coastal protection role of the mangrove, are well shared by surveyed people whereas others, such as the number and the name of mangrove tree species, are poorly known. The results also highlight the difficulty of questions implying observation at the landscape level and interpretation of observation. All the influencing factors selected have a significant influence on, at least, one LEK variable. The results highlight differences in LEK of villages bordering two nearby mangroves calling for a local management of these systems.

Non-Timber Forest Product Livelihood-Focused Interventions in Support of Mangrove Restoration: A Call to Action

Mangroves of tropical and subtropical shores and deltas contribute to ecosystem functioning and human wellbeing in numerous ways but continue to be lost or degraded worldwide at a rapid pace. Overexploitation driven by poverty is often the root cause of mangrove destruction and degradation. The negative feedback cycle between destruction and poverty can only be broken by justly valuing current or introducing new sustainable livelihood options to foster long-lasting local support for mangroves. The large array of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that mangroves offer have rarely been developed beyond the subsistence level and remain undervalued as “products of the poor”. In light of the global trends towards sustainability and bio-economy, today they represent a major business opportunity for forest communities to produce high value-added end-user products. Even though mangrove NTFPs have been recognized to have high potential toward inclusive development and poverty alleviation and to be highly gender-equal, the development of mangrove NTFPs has continued to attract very little funding or research interest. Several ecological characteristics make commercialization of mangrove NTFPs particularly challenging. Production at economies of scale, including quality standards, as well as marketing and value chain management are all essential in order to develop these products beyond their subsistence role. To be most effective, a systems perspective on NTFP development is needed, whereby product-market development occurs in unison and based on a participative, inclusive and fair development approach. The species/product of choice for value-added product-market development in any specific community or area will depend on several factors. To address many of the typical constraints and maximize the chances of success, we suggest that the use of village or district-level cooperatives may be particularly useful. A better use of the untapped potential of mangroves for local livelihoods may form a most convincing advocate for local protection and restoration of mangrove forests. Therefore, funding agencies, governments and researchers alike are called to invest in mangrove NTFP development as a way to locally incentivize sustainable mangrove protection and restoration.

The Potential of Mangrove Forest as Natural Tourism Area Based on the Flora-Fauna Characteristics and Social Aspect Case Study: Mangrove forest in Angsana Village

Mangrove forests as natural resources have potential value as natural tourism. This research aims to analyze the potential of mangroves based on the ecological perspective of flora fauna and socio-cultural to be a natural tourism area. The object of this research is the mangrove forest and its resources. The research location was Angsana Village, Angsana District, Tanah Bumbu Regency, South Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. The equipment used was a set of survey tools and questionnaires. The flora and fauna characteristics of the mangrove forest were determined by the species compositions analysis with a tabulation matrix method. The socio-cultural aspects were analyzed descriptively. The potential of mangrove forests as natural tourism was analyzed using a tabulation matrix and narrative descriptive. The composition of tree species as a whole consisted of 14 species. There were 19 species of birds, 6 species of mammals, and 7 species of fish found in the mangrove forest area. The community strongly agree that mangroves can be used as a tourist area. Angsana Village has mangrove vegetation around the river which has approximately 43.61 Ha in size was naturally undisturbed and accessible by a road. The mangrove forest of the village of Angsana is estimated about 200 meters far from Angsana Beach. Based on an analysis of the potential of mangrove forests, this area has the potentials to be developed as natural tourism and even ecotourism. Mangrove natural tourism area can be developed as additional tourism objects that are already running from Angsana Beach tourist destinations.

Ecosystem service valuations of mangrove ecosystems to inform decision making and future valuation exercises

The valuation of ecosystem services is a complex process as it includes several dimensions (ecological, socio-cultural and economic) and not all of these can be quantified in monetary units. The aim of this paper is to conduct an ecosystem services valuation study for mangroves ecosystems, the results of which can be used to inform governance and management of mangroves. We used an expert-based participatory approach (the Delphi technique) to identify, categorize and rank the various ecosystem services provided by mangrove ecosystems at a global scale. Subsequently we looked for evidence in the existing ecosystem services literature for monetary valuations of these ecosystem service categories throughout the biogeographic distribution of mangroves. We then compared the relative ranking of ecosystem service categories between the monetary valuations and the expert based analysis. The experts identified 16 ecosystem service categories, six of which are not adequately represented in the literature. There was no significant correlation between the expert based valuation (the Delphi technique) and the economic valuation, indicating that the scope of valuation of ecosystem services needs to be broadened. Acknowledging this diversity in different valuation approaches, and developing methodological frameworks that foster the pluralism of values in ecosystem services research, are crucial for maintaining the credibility of ecosystem services valuation. To conclude, we use the findings of our dual approach to valuation to make recommendations on how to assess and manage the ecosystem services provided by mangrove ecosystems.

Is Matang Mangrove Forest in Malaysia sustainably rejuvenating after more than a century of conservation and harvesting management?

Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR) in Peninsular Malaysia is under systematic management since 1902 and still considered as the best managed mangrove forest in the world. The present study on silvimetrics assessed the ongoing MMFR forest management, which includes a first thinning after 15 years, a second thinning after 20 years and clear-felling of 30-year old forest blocks, for its efficiency and productivity in comparison to natural mangroves. The estimated tree structural parameters (e.g. density, frequency) from three different-aged mangrove blocks of fifteen (MF15), twenty (MF20), and thirty (MF30) years old indicated that Bruguiera and Excoecaria spp. did not constitute a significant proportion of the vegetation (<5%), and hence the results focused majorly on Rhizophora apiculata. The density of R. apiculata at MF15, MF20 and MF30 was 4,331, 2,753 and 1,767 stems ha(-1), respectively. In relation to ongoing practices of the artificial thinnings at MMFR, the present study suggests that the first thinning could be made earlier to limit the loss of exploitable wood due to natural thinning. In fact, the initial density at MF15 was expected to drop down from 6,726 to 1,858 trees ha(-1) before the first thinning. Therefore the trees likely to qualify for natural thinning, though having a smaller stem diameter, should be exploited for domestic/commercial purposes at an earlier stage. The clear-felling block (MF30) with a maximum stem diameter of 30 cm was estimated to yield 372 t ha(-1) of the above-ground biomass and suggests that the mangrove management based on a 30-year rotation is appropriate for the MMFR. Since Matang is the only iconic site that practicing sustainable wood production, it could be an exemplary to other mangrove locations for their improved management.

Using expert knowledge and modeling to define mangrove composition, functioning, and threats and estimate time frame for recovery

Mangroves are threatened worldwide, and their loss or degradation could impact functioning of the ecosystem. Our aim was to investigate three aspects of mangroves at a global scale: (1) their constituents (2) their indispensable ecological functions, and (3) the maintenance of their constituents and functions in degraded mangroves. We focused on answering two questions: “What is a mangrove ecosystem” and “How vulnerable are mangrove ecosystems to different impacts”? We invited 106 mangrove experts globally to participate in a survey based on the Delphi technique and provide inputs on the three aspects. The outputs from the Delphi technique for the third aspect, i.e. maintenance of constituents and functions were incorporated in a modeling approach to simulate the time frame for recovery. Presented here for the first time are the consensus definition of the mangrove ecosystem and the list of mangrove plant species. In this study, experts considered even monospecific (tree) stands to be a mangrove ecosystem as long as there was adequate tidal exchange, propagule dispersal, and faunal interactions. We provide a ranking of the important ecological functions, faunal groups, and impacts on mangroves. Degradation due to development was identified as having the largest impact on mangroves globally in terms of spatial scale, intensity, and time needed for restoration. The results indicate that mangroves are ecologically unique even though they may be species poor (from the vegetation perspective). The consensus list of mangrove species and the ranking of the mangrove ecological functions could be a useful tool for restoration and management of mangroves. While there is ample literature on the destruction of mangroves due to aquaculture in the past decade, this study clearly shows that more attention must go to avoiding and mitigating mangrove loss due to coastal development (such as building of roads, ports, or harbors).