Kombucha ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through activation of Treg and Th2 cells

Kombucha: An Old Tradition into a New Concept of a Beneficial, Health-Promoting Beverage

Kombucha is an ancient, fermented beverage that has gained increasing popularity worldwide due to its potential health benefits. Its origins trace back to China, from where it spread across Asia and Europe before reaching the modern global market. The fermentation of kombucha is mediated by a Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeasts (SCOBY), comprising yeasts, acetic acid bacteria, and lactic acid bacteria. The microbial consortium plays a crucial role in the production of organic acids and bioactive metabolites, shaping the sensory characteristics of the beverage. Given the growing interest in kombucha as a functional beverage, this study aims to explore its historical background, fermentation process, and microbiological composition, including key yeasts, acid acetic bacteria, and lactic acid bacteria and their interactions. Additionally, we describe the potential health effects of kombucha, particularly its antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, the probiotic potential of the strains associated with kombucha, and safety considerations while also addressing the risks associated with its consumption. Although several studies suggested that kombucha may have antioxidants, antimicrobial, and probiotic properties, as well as contribute to gut microbiota regulation and immune system support, there is significant variability in the composition of the beverage, especially in artisanal preparations. This variability poses challenges in standardizing its potential effects and ensuring consistent safety. The risk of contamination further underscores the importance of adhering to strict sanitary production standards. To scientifically validate its health benefits and guarantee safe consumption, further research with larger sample sizes and robust methodologies is essential. The findings of this study will contribute to a deeper understanding of the functional properties of kombucha and provide scientific support for its safe and beneficial applications.

Modulating the human gut microbiome and health markers through kombucha consumption: a controlled clinical study

Fermented foods are becoming more popular due to their purported links to metabolic health and the gut microbiome. However, direct clinical evidence for the health claims is lacking. Here, we describe an eight-week clinical trial that explored the effects of a four-week kombucha supplement in healthy individuals consuming a Western diet, randomized into the kombucha (n = 16) or control (n = 8) group. We collected longitudinal stool and blood samples to profile the human microbiome and inflammation markers. We did not observe significant changes in either biochemical parameters or levels of circulating markers of inflammation across the entire cohort. However, paired analysis between baseline and end of intervention time points within kombucha or control groups revealed increases in fasting insulin and in HOMA-IR in the kombucha group whereas reductions in HDL cholesterol were associated with the control group. Shotgun metagenomic analysis revealed the relative abundance of Weizmannia, a kombucha-enriched probiotic and several SCFA producing taxa to be overrepresented in consumers at the end of the intervention. Collectively, in our healthy cohort consuming a Western diet, a short-term kombucha intervention induced modest impacts on human gut microbiome composition and biochemical parameters, which may be attributed to relatively small number of participants and the extensive inter-participant variability.

Green Tea Kombucha Impacts Inflammation and Salivary Microbiota in Individuals with Excess Body Weight: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Green tea kombucha (GTK) is a fermented beverage with promising health benefits, but few studies proved its impact on human health. Thus, we aimed to investigate the impact of GTK on weight loss, inflammation, and salivary microbiota in individuals with excess body weight.

METHODS

This is a randomized controlled clinical trial that lasted 10 weeks with two groups of individuals with excess body weight: control (CG; n = 29; caloric restriction) and kombucha (KG; n = 30; caloric restriction + 200 mL GTK). Body composition, anthropometry, saliva, and blood collection were performed in the beginning and end of the intervention. Plasma interleukins were determined by flow cytometry. Salivary microbiota was analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing.

RESULTS

Both groups decreased weight, BMI, and body fat (p < 0.001) after the intervention, but there were no differences between groups. The KG reduced lipid accumulation product (LAP) (p = 0.029). Both groups decreased IL-1β and IL-8, but IL-6 increased in the CG (p = 0.023) compared to the kombucha group. Alpha and beta diversity of salivary microbiota increased in the KG. Moreover, the KG presented lower Bacillota/Bacteroidota ratio (p = 0.028), and BMI was positively associated with the Bacillota phylum.

CONCLUSIONS

GTK did not enhance weight loss, but it decreased the LAP. GTK helped in the inflammatory profile and induced positive changes in oral microbiota composition.

Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis via modulation of Th1/Th17 and expansion of Th2/Treg responses

The most common central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory disease is multiple sclerosis (MS), modeled using experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exhibit potent immunomodulatory capabilities, including the suppression of immune cell functions and anti-inflammatory cytokine production. Female C57BL/6 mice (8-10 weeks old) were divided into three groups: 1. Control, 2. Allogeneic MSCs (ALO) treatment, and 3. Syngeneic MSCs (SYN) treatment. To induce EAE, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein was injected subcutaneously with complete Freund's adjuvant, followed by intraperitoneal pertussis toxin. On Days 6 and 12 postimmunization, the treatment groups received intraperitoneal injections of 2 × 106 MSCs. Daily clinical and weight assessments were performed, and on Day 25, the mice were euthanized. At the end of the period, brain histological analysis was conducted to quantify lymphocyte infiltration. T-cell characteristics were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The assessment of transcription factor expression levels in the CNS was also performed using RT-PCR. Compared to the control group, both the allogeneic (ALO) and syngeneic (SYN) groups demonstrated significantly reduced disease progression. The maximum clinical scores for the control, ALO, and SYN groups were 4.4 ± 0.1, 2.4 ± 0.2, and 2.1 ± 0.2, respectively (ALO and SYN vs. Control: p < .001). In comparison to the control group, histological studies demonstrated that the allogeneic and syngeneic groups had less lymphocytic infiltration (ALO: 1.4 ± 0.1, SYN: 1.2 ± 0.2, and control: 2.8 ± 0.15; p < .001) and demyelination (ALO: 1.2 ± 0.15, SYN: 1.1 ± 0.1 and control: 2.9 ± 0.1, p < .001). ALO and SYN groups had lower expression of Th1 and Th17 cytokines and transcription factors (IFN-γ: 0.067, 0.051; STAT4: 0.189, 0.162; T-bet: 0.175, 0.163; IL-17: 0.074, 0.061; STAT3: 0.271, 0.253; ROR-γt: 0.163, 0.149, respectively) compared to the control group on Day 25 following EAE induction. Additionally, ALO and SYN groups compared to the control group, expressed more Th2 and Treg cytokines and transcription factors (IL-4: 4.25, 4.63; STAT6: 2.78, 2.96; GATA3: 2.91, 3.08; IL-27: 2.32, 2.46, IL-33: 2.71, 2.85; TGF-β: 4.8, 5.05; IL-10: 4.71, 4.93; CTLA-4: 7.72, 7.95; PD1: 4.12,4.35; Foxp3: 3.82,4.08, respectively). This research demonstrated that MSCs possess the potential to be a therapeutic option for MS and related CNS inflammatory disorders. Their immunomodulatory properties, coupled with the observed reductions in disease severity, lymphocytic infiltration, and demyelination, indicate that MSCs could play a crucial role in altering the course of MS by mitigating inflammatory immune responses and promoting regulatory immune processes. These findings open up new possibilities for the development of MSC-based therapies for MS, and further investigation and clinical trials may be warranted to explore their efficacy and safety in human patients.

Additional advances related to the health benefits associated with kombucha consumption

Kombucha is a fermented, acidic beverage that dates back thousands of years as a remedy for various health problems in East Asia. Due to its health benefits, kombucha has gained popularity and attracted the attention of both consumers and researchers. The health benefits of kombucha are predominantly attributed to its bioactive compounds that have antioxidant, antimicrobial, probiotic, and other positive effects owing to fermentation. Many factors such as the type of the substrate used, the symbiotic culture of the bacterial yeast composition, and fermentation conditions influence the extent of these properties. This review focuses on recent developments regarding the bioactive constituents of kombucha and its potential health benefits (antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective effects) as well as its impact on multiple sclerosis, nephrotoxicity, gastric ulceration and gut microbiota. Additionally, the composition of kombucha, alternative uses of its biofilm, and potential toxicity are also discussed. Kombucha is a healthy and safe beverage with multiple health benefits that are primarily related to the presence of bacteria, yeasts, and other bioactive constituents. Moreover, kombucha has been suggested as a potential source of probiotics and eco-friendly materials (kombucha-derived bacterial cellulose) for several industries including food and textile.

Exploring the immune-modulating properties of boswellic acid in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a condition where the central nervous system loses its myelin coating due to autoimmune inflammation. The experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) simulates some aspects of human MS. Boswellic acids are natural compounds derived from frankincense extract, known for their anti-inflammatory properties. The purpose of this research was to investigate therapeutic potential of boswellic acids. Mice were divided into three groups: low-dose (LD), high-dose (HD), and control groups (CTRL). Following EAE induction, the mice received daily doses of boswellic acid for 25 days. Brain tissue damage, clinical symptoms, and levels of TGF-β, IFN-γ, and IL-17 cytokines in cell cultured supernatant of lymphocytes were assessed. Gene expression of transcription factors in brain was measured using real-time PCR. The levels of brain demyelination were significantly lower in the treatment groups compared to the CTRL group. Boswellic acid reduced the severity and duration of EAE symptoms. Furthermore, boswellic acid decreased the amounts of IFN-γ and IL-17, also the expression of T-bet and ROR-γt in brain. On the contrary, it increased the levels of TGF-β and the expression FoxP3 and GATA3. Our findings suggest that boswellic acids possess therapeutic potential for EAE by modulating the immune response and reducing inflammation.

Fermented foods: Harnessing their potential to modulate the microbiota-gut-brain axis for mental health

Over the past two decades, whole food supplementation strategies have been leveraged to target mental health. In addition, there has been increasing attention on the ability of gut microbes, so called psychobiotics, to positively impact behaviour though the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Fermented foods offer themselves as a combined whole food microbiota modulating intervention. Indeed, they contain potentially beneficial microbes, microbial metabolites and other bioactives, which are being harnessed to target the microbiota-gut-brain axis for positive benefits. This review highlights the diverse nature of fermented foods in terms of the raw materials used and type of fermentation employed, and summarises their potential to shape composition of the gut microbiota, the gut to brain communication pathways including the immune system and, ultimately, modulate the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Throughout, we identify knowledge gaps and challenges faced in designing human studies for investigating the mental health-promoting potential of individual fermented foods or components thereof. Importantly, we also suggest solutions that can advance understanding of the therapeutic merit of fermented foods to modulate the microbiota-gut-brain axis.

Berberine: A natural modulator of immune cells in multiple sclerosis

Berberine is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid found in such plants as Berberis vulgaris, Berberis aristata, and others, revealing a variety of pharmacological properties as a result of interacting with different cellular and molecular targets. Recent studies have shown the immunomodulatory effects of Berberine which result from its impacts on immune cells and immune response mediators such as diverse T lymphocyte subsets, dendritic cells (DCs), and different inflammatory cytokines. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disabling and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by the recruitment of autoreactive T cells into the CNS causing demyelination, axonal damage, and oligodendrocyte loss. There have been considerable changes discovered in MS regards to the function and frequency of T cell subsets such as Th1 cells, Th17 cells, Th2 cells, Treg cells, and DCs. In the current research, we reviewed the outcomes of in vitro, experimental, and clinical investigations concerning the modulatory effects that Berberine provides on the function and numbers of T cell subsets and DCs, as well as important cytokines that are involved in MS.

Thymoquinone improves experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by regulating both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines

Introduction Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune condition marked by inflammation and the loss of myelin in the central nervous system (CNS). The aim of this research was to understand how Thymoquinone regulate the molecular and cellular processes involved in controlling experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which is an animal model often used to study MS. Methods Female C57BL/6 mice were split into different groups receiving different doses (low, medium, and high) of Thymoquinone simultaneously with EAE induction. Clinical scores and other measurements were observed daily throughout the 25-day post immunization. We assessed lymphocyte infiltration and demyelination in the spinal cord through histological staining, analyzed T-cell profiles using ELISA, and quantified the expression levels of transcription factors in the CNS using Real-time PCR. Results Thymoquinone prevented the development of EAE. Histological experiments revealed only a small degree of leukocyte infiltration into the CNS. Thymoquinone resulted in a notable reduction in the generation of IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-6, while simultaneously increasing the production of IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β in Th2 and Treg cells. Results from Real-time PCR suggested Treatment with Thymoquinone decreased the expression of T-bet and ROR-γt while increasing the expression of Foxp3 and GATA3. Conclusion These findings showed that Thymoquinone could decrease both disease incidence and severity.

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells to ameliorate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis via modifying expression patterns of miRNAs

INTRODUCTION

Clinical and experimental studies highlighted the significant therapeutic role of Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in neurodegenerative diseases. MSCs possess potent immunomodulatory properties by releasing exosomes, which generate a suitable microenvironment. microRNAs (miRNAs), as one of several effective bioactive molecules of exosomes, influence cellular communication and activities in recipient cells. Recent studies revealed that miRNAs could control the progression of multiple sclerosis (MS) via differentiation and function of T helper cells (Th).

METHODS

Here, we investigated the therapeutic effects of syngeneic-derived BM-MSC in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model of MS by evaluating expression profile of miRNAs, pro- and anti-inflammatory in serum and brain tissues. Three-time scheme groups (6th day, 6th & 12th days, and 12th day, of post-EAE induction) were applied to determine the therapeutic effects of intraperitoneally received 1*106 of BM-MSCs.

RESULTS

The expression levels of mature isoforms of miR-193, miR-146a, miR-155, miR-21, and miR-326 showed that BM-MSCs treatment attenuated the EAE clinical score and reduced clinical inflammation as well as demyelination. The improved neurological functional outcome associated with enhanced expression of miR-193 and miR-146a, but decreased expression levels of miR-155, miR-21, and miR-326 were followed by suppressing effects on Th1/Th17 immune responses (reduced levels of IFN-γand IL-17 cytokine expression) and induction of Treg cells, immunoregulatory responses (increase of IL-10, TGF-β, and IL-4) in treatment groups.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that BM-MSCs administration might change expression patterns of miRNAs and downstream interactions followed by immune system modulation. However, there is a need to carry out future human clinical trials and complementary experiments.

Chronic Kombucha Beverage Consumption Attenuates Inflammatory Markers and Histopathology of Brain Tissue in Transnet Global Brain Ischemia in Rats

There is evidence that kombucha beverage (KB), a traditional fermented beverage, has a preventive effect on experimental brain ischemia. According to our previous studies, pre-treatment of KB attenuates brain edema and improves motor skills and oxidative stress in a rat model of global brain ischemia. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of the pre-treatment of KB, as a novel agent, on pro-inflammatory parameters and brain histopathology changes following global brain ischemia. Adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into the sham, the control, and the groups treated with kombucha (KB1 and KB2 groups). KB at doses 1 and 2 mL/kg was prescribed two-week consecutive days before induction of global brain ischemia. Global brain ischemia was induced by blocking common carotid arteries for 60 min and the following reperfusion by 24 h. The serum and brain levels of tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-α), IL-1β, histopathological change, and infarct volume are determined using the ELISA, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), and 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, respectively. This study indicated that pre-treatment of KB significantly reduced infarct volume, the serum, and brain levels of TNF-α and IL-1β. The histopathological finding of the brain tissue confirmed a protective role for pre-treatment KB in the ischemic rats. Thus, the present study showed that the beneficial effects of KB pre-treatment on brain ischemic may be mediated by decreasing pro-inflammatory parameters.

Kombucha Beverages Produced from Fruits, Vegetables, and Plants: A Review on Their Pharmacological Activities and Health Benefits

Kombucha is a traditional health beverage produced by fermenting sweetened tea with a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts. Consumption of kombucha beverages has been growing and there is kombucha commercially available worldwide as one of the most famous low-alcohol beverages. Kombucha beverages have been claimed to have beneficial effects on human health because they contain a variety of bioactive compounds that possess various functional properties. At present, several kinds of raw material (e.g., milk, fruit, vegetables, and herbs) have been fermented with kombucha consortium and consumed as kombucha beverages. Although several studies have been written regarding the biological activities of kombucha and raw materials, there is however little information available on the characterization of their components as well as the biological activities of fermented kombucha from many raw material mixtures. Several pharmacological activities were reviewed in the scientific literature, describing their potential implications for human health. In addition, the adverse effects and toxicity of kombucha consumption were also reviewed. In this study, we focused on the main and latest studies of the pharmacological effects of kombucha beverages produced from various kinds of raw materials, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and antihyperlipidemic effects in in vitro and in vivo studies.

Are Fermented Foods Effective against Inflammatory Diseases?

Fermented foods have been used over the centuries in various parts of the world. These foods are rich in nutrients and are produced naturally using various biological tools like bacteria and fungi. Fermentation of edible foods has been rooted in ancient cultures to keep food for preservation and storage for a long period of time with desired or enhanced nutritional values. Inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and chronic inflammatory pain are chronic disorders that are difficult to treat, and current treatments for these disorders fail due to various adverse effects of prescribed medications over a long period of time. Fermented foods containing probiotic bacteria and fungi can enhance the immune system, improve gastrointestinal health, and lower the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. Foods prepared from vegetables by fermentation, like kimchi, sauerkraut, soy-based foods, or turmeric, lack proper clinical and translational experimental studies. The current review has focused on the effectiveness of various fermented foods or drinks used over centuries against inflammation, arthritis, and oxidative stress. We also described potential limitations on the efficacies or usages of these fermented products to provide an overarching picture of the research field.

Berberine promotes immunological outcomes and decreases neuroinflammation in the experimental model of multiple sclerosis through the expansion of Treg and Th2 cells

INTRODUCTION

Among the most frequent demyelinating autoimmune disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) is multiple sclerosis. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is used as an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Berberine is an alkaloid found in some medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory effects.

METHODS

C57BL/6 female mice were used and divided into three groups: (1) The control group received PBS, (2) the low-dose treatment group received 10 mg/kg of berberine, and (3) The high-dose treatment group received 30 mg/kg of berberine. Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein and complete Freund's adjuvant were subcutaneously administered to induce EAE. Mice were given intraperitoneal injections of pertussis toxin on the day of immunization and 2 days later. Histological studies showed low lymphocyte infiltration and demyelination of CNS in the treated groups.

RESULTS

The clinical scores of the treatment group with low-dose berberine (T1: 2 ± 0.13) and high-dose berberine (T2: 1.5 ± 0.14) were significantly (p < .001) lower than the control group (CTRL: 4.5 ± 0.13). Treatment groups decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, interleukin [IL]-17) (p < .001) as well as increased anti-inflammatory cytokine expression (IL-4, IL-10, IL-27, IL-33, IL-35, TGF-β) (p < .01) when compared to the CTRL group. Treatment groups with berberine reduced expression of the Th1 and Th17 cytokines and transcription factors (p < .001) and increased expression of transcription factors and Th2 and Treg cytokines (p < .01) in contrast to CTRL group.

CONCLUSION

Berberine appears to have a protective effect on disease development and alleviating disease status in EAE, which appears to be due to the cell expansion and function of Treg and Th2 cells in addition to berberine's anti-inflammatory properties.

Oral Administration of Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Attenuates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis through Induction of Th2/Treg Cells and Suppression of Th1/Th17 Immune Responses

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) has been widely used to determine the pathogenesis of the disease and evaluate new treatment strategies for MS. Therefore, we investigated the efficacy of oral administration of a Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein (MOG) in the treatment of EAE. Female C57BL/6 mice were utilized in three groups (Control group, received PBS orally; prevention group, oral administration of MOG35-55 two weeks before EAE induction; treatment group, oral administration of MOG35-55 after EAE induction). MOG administration, both as prevention and treatment, significantly controlled clinical score, weight loss, CNS inflammation, and demyelination, mainly through the modulation of T cell proliferation, and reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines and transcription factors, including TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-17, T-bet, and ROR-γt. MOG administration, both as prevention and treatment, also induced anti-inflammatory cytokines and transcription factors, including IL-4, TGF-β, GATA-3, and Foxp3. The results showed that oral administration of MOG, both as prevention and treatment, could efficiently control EAE development. Immunomodulatory mechanisms include the induction of Th2 and Treg cells and the suppression of pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cells.

MicroRNAs as T Lymphocyte Regulators in Multiple Sclerosis

MicroRNA (miRNA) is a class of endogenous non-coding small RNA with regulatory activities, which generally regulates the expression of target genes at the post-transcriptional level. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is thought to be an autoimmune-mediated chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that typically affect young adults. T lymphocytes play an important role in the pathogenesis of MS, and studies have suggested that miRNAs are involved in regulating the proliferation, differentiation, and functional maintenance of T lymphocytes in MS. Dysregulated expression of miRNAs may lead to the differentiation balance and dysfunction of T lymphocytes, and they are thus involved in the occurrence and development of MS. In addition, some specific miRNAs, such as miR-155 and miR-326, may have potential diagnostic values for MS or be useful for discriminating subtypes of MS. Moreover, miRNAs may be a promising therapeutic strategy for MS by regulating T lymphocyte function. By summarizing the recent literature, we reviewed the involvement of T lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of MS, the role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis and disease progression of MS by regulating T lymphocytes, the possibility of differentially expressed miRNAs to function as biomarkers for MS diagnosis, and the therapeutic potential of miRNAs in MS by regulating T lymphocytes.

Advances in Kombucha Tea Fermentation: A Review

Kombucha is a carbonated, slightly acidic beverage traditionally produced by the fermentation of sweetened tea by a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). The microbial community of kombucha is a complex one, whose dynamics are still not fully understood; however, the emergence of culture-independent techniques has allowed a more comprehensive insight into kombucha microbiota. In recent times, advancements have been made towards the optimisation of the fermentation process, including the use of alternative substrates, defined starter cultures and the modification of fermentation parameters, with the aim of producing an innovative beverage that is improved in terms of its physiochemical, sensory and bioactive properties. The global kombucha market is rapidly increasing, with the rising popularity of the tea attributed in part to its purported health benefits, despite the lack of research in human subjects to substantiate such claims. Accordingly, the incidence of kombucha home-brewing has increased, meaning there is a requirement for individuals to recognise the potential hazards associated with fermentation and the relevant preventative measures to be undertaken to ensure the safe preparation of kombucha. The aim of this review is to provide an update regarding the current knowledge of kombucha production, microbiology, safety and marketing.