Tumor-derived exosomes encapsulating miR-34a promote apoptosis and inhibit migration and tumor progression of colorectal cancer cells under in vitro condition

A review of the role of tumor-derived exosomes in cancers treatment and progression

Tumor cells (TCs) produce exosomes (EXOs), nanovesicles formed in endosomes. Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) are tiny, bubble-shaped structures formed by TCs that include microRNAs (miRNA), proteins, enzymes, and copies of DNA and RNA. Many different kinds of cancer rely on TDEs. For instance, TDEs play a large role in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and promote tumor spread via many pathways. Furthermore, TDEs impact the efficacy of cancer treatments. Additionally, because of their low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, and low toxicity, TDEs have been extensively used as drug delivery vehicles for cancer immunotherapy. Consequently, future cancer treatments may benefit from focusing on both the therapeutic function and the tumorigenic pathways of TDEs. Consequently, in this work, we have examined the roles of TDEs in cancer development, such as tumor angiogenesis, immune system evasion, and tumor metastasis. Then, we reviewed TDEs used to transport anticancer medicines, including chemotherapeutic medications, therapeutic compounds (including miRNA), and anticancer nanoparticles. We have concluded by outlining the challenges of clinical translation, including carcinogenicity and medication resistance, and by offering some suggestions for addressing these issues.

Engineered exosomes in service of tumor immunotherapy: From optimizing tumor-derived exosomes to delivering CRISPR/Cas9 system

Exosomes can be modified and designed for various therapeutic goals because of their unique physical and chemical characteristics. Researchers have identified tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) as significant players in cancer by influencing tumor growth, immune response evasion, angiogeneis, and drug resistance. TEXs promote the production of specific proteins important for cancer progression. Due to their easy accessibility, TEXs are being modified through genetic, drug delivery, membrane, immune system, and chemical alterations to be repurposed as vehicles for delivering drugs to improve cancer treatment outcomes. In the complex in vivo environment, the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system encounters challenges from degradation, neutralization, and immune responses, emphasizing the need for strategic distribution strategies for effective genome editing. Engineered exosomes present a promising avenue for delivering CRISPR/Cas9 in vivo. In this review, we will explore different techniques for enhancing TEXs using various engineering strategies. Additionally, we will discuss how these exosomes can be incorporated into advanced genetic engineering systems like CRISPR/Cas9 for possible therapeutic uses.

Raman spectroscopy in extracellular vesicles analysis: Techniques, applications and advancements

Raman spectroscopy provides a robust approach for detailed analysis of the chemical and molecular profiles of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Recent advancements in Raman techniques have significantly enhanced the sensitivity and accuracy of EV characterization, enabling precise detection and profiling of molecular components within EV samples. This review introduces and compares various Raman-based techniques for EV characterization. These include Raman spectroscopy (RS), which provides fundamental molecular information; Raman trapping analysis (RTA), which combines optical trapping with Raman scattering for the manipulation and analysis of individual EVs; surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), which enhances the Raman signal through the use of metallic nanostructures, significantly improving sensitivity; and microfluidic SERS, which integrates SERS with microfluidic platforms to allow high-throughput, label-free analysis of EVs in biological fluids. In addition to comparing various Raman techniques, this review provides a comprehensive analysis that includes comparisons of machine learning methods, EV isolation techniques, and characterization strategies. By integrating these approaches, the review presents a holistic perspective on Raman-based EV analysis, covering profiling, purity, heterogeneity and size analysis as well as imaging. The combined assessment of Raman technologies with advanced computational and experimental methodologies supports the development of more robust diagnostic and therapeutic applications involving EVs.

Exosomal signaling in cancer metastasis: Molecular insights and therapeutic opportunities

Exosomes are membrane-bound extracellular vesicles that play a role in exchanging biological products across membranes and serve as intermediaries in intercellular communication to maintain normal homeostasis. Numerous molecules, including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are enclosed in exosomes. Exosomes are constantly released into the extracellular environment and exhibit distinct characteristics based on the secreted cells that produce them. Exosome-mediated cell-to-cell communication has reportedly been shown to affect multiple cancer hallmarks, such as immune response modulation, pre-metastatic niche formation, angiogenesis, stromal cell reprogramming, extracellular matrix architecture remodeling, or even drug resistance, and eventually the development and metastasis of cancer cells. Exosomes can be used as therapeutic targets and possible diagnostic biomarkers by selectively loading oncogenic molecules into them. We highlight the important roles that exosomes play in cancer development in this review, which may lead to the development of fresh approaches for future clinical uses.

Revolutionizing cancer therapy: nanoformulation of miRNA-34 - enhancing delivery and efficacy for various cancer immunotherapies: a review

Despite recent advancements in cancer therapies, challenges such as severe toxic effects, non-selective targeting, resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and recurrence of metastatic tumors persist. Consequently, there has been considerable effort to explore innovative anticancer compounds, particularly in immunotherapy, which offer the potential for enhanced biosafety and efficacy in cancer prevention and treatment. One such avenue of exploration involves the miRNA-34 (miR-34) family, known for its ability to inhibit tumorigenesis across various cancers. Dysregulation of miR-34 has been observed in several human cancers, and it is recognized as a tumor suppressor microRNA due to its synergistic interaction with the well-established tumor suppressor p53. However, challenges have arisen with the therapeutic application of miR-34a. These include its susceptibility to degradation by RNase in serum, limiting its ability to penetrate capillary endothelium and reach target cells, as well as reports of immunoreactive adverse reactions. Furthermore, unexpected side effects may occur, such as the accumulation of therapeutic miRNAs in healthy tissues due to interactions with serum proteins on nano-vector surfaces, nanoparticle breakdown in the bloodstream due to shearing stress, and unsuccessful extravasation of nanocarriers to target cells owing to interstitial fluid pressure. Despite these challenges, miR-34a remains a promising candidate for cancer therapy, and other members of the miR-34 family have also shown potential in inhibiting tumor cell proliferation. While the in vivo applications of miR-34b/c are limited, they warrant further exploration for oncotherapy. Recently, procedures utilizing nanoparticles have been developed to address the challenges associated with the clinical use of miR-34, demonstrating efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. This review highlights emerging trends in nanodelivery systems for miR-34 targeting cancer cells, offering insights into novel nanoformulations designed to enhance the anticancer therapeutic activity and targeting precision of miR-34. As far as current knowledge extends, no similar recent review comprehensively addresses the diverse nanoformulations aimed at optimizing the therapeutic potential of miR-34 in anticancer strategies.

The effects of tumor-derived exosomes enriched with miRNA-211a on B16F10 cells

Introduction

Exosomes have emerged as a novel alternative delivery system for transporting small molecules. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) possess anti-cancer properties and serve as natural carriers of microRNAs. Using this knowledge as a foundation, the current study evaluated the efficacy of delivering a miR-211 mimic via B16F10 cell-derived exosomes to block the growth and development of a melanoma cell line.

Material and methods

After exposing B16F10 cultured cells to serum-free media for 24 hours, we collected the supernatant. Subsequently, we purified the exosomes from the supernatant using a commercial kit. Scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, Western blot, and bicinchoninic acid protein assay were used to characterize exosomes. Following that, miR-211 mimic was loaded into exosomes (termed TEXomiR) via a modified calcium chloride procedure. The assessment of miR-211a loading efficiency into exosomes was conducted by analyzing its relative expression. MTT, annexin V/PI, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to measure the proliferation, apoptosis and relative expression of miR-211 target genes, respectively.

Results

Our study showed that the exosomes can deliver miR-211 mimic efficiently. The treatment of B16F10 cells with miR-211-enriched TEX downregulated miR-211 target genes, including brain-specific homeobox, vascular endothelial growth factor, and transforming growth factor-β receptor. The results indicated the antiproliferative effect of TEXomiR as time-dose-dependent. The flow cytometry evaluation showed that TEXomiR could induce the apoptosis of B16F10 cells.

Conclusions

Our data indicated that exosomes can be suitable carriers for miR-211 mimic. Moreover, TEXomiR via anti-cancer effects could inhibit the progression of melanoma cancer.

Chondroitin sulfate-tocopherol succinate modified exosomes for targeted drug delivery to CD44-positive cancer cells

Exosomes (Exos), natural nanovesicles released by various cell types, show potential as an effective drug delivery platform due to their intrinsic role as transporters of biomolecules between different cells. However, Exos functionalization with targeting ligands is a critical step to enhance their targeting capability, which could be challenging. In this study, Exos were modified to specifically bind to CD44-positive cells by anchoring chondroitin sulfate (CS) to their surface. Exo modification was facilitated with CS conjugation with alpha-tocopherol succinate (TOS) as an anchorage. The modified Exos were utilized for delivering curcumin (Cur) to pancreatic cancer (PC) cells. In vitro Cur release studies revealed that Exos play a crucial role in maintaining Cur within themselves, demonstrating their potential as effective carriers for drug delivery to targeted locations. Notably, Cur loaded into the modified Exos exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity compared to unmodified Exo-Cur. Meanwhile, Exo-Cur-TOS-CS induced apoptosis more effectively in AsPC-1 cells than unmodified Exos (70.2 % versus 56.9 %). It is worth mentioning that with CD44-mediated cancer-specific targeting, Exo-CS enabled increased intracellular accumulation in AsPC-1 cells, showing promise as a targeted platform for cancer therapy. These results confirm that Exo modification has a positive impact on enhancing the therapeutic efficacy and cytotoxicity of drugs.

MicroRNA-34 and gastrointestinal cancers: a player with big functions

It is commonly assumed that gastrointestinal cancer is the most common form of cancer across the globe and is the leading contributor to cancer-related death. The intricate mechanisms underlying the growth of GI cancers have been identified. It is worth mentioning that both non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and certain types of RNA, such as circular RNAs (circRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and microRNAs (miRNAs), can have considerable impact on the development of gastrointestinal (GI) cancers. As a tumour suppressor, in the group of short non-coding regulatory RNAs is miR-34a. miR-34a silences multiple proto-oncogenes at the post-transcriptional stage by targeting them, which inhibits all physiologically relevant cell proliferation pathways. However, it has been discovered that deregulation of miR-34a plays important roles in the growth of tumors and the development of cancer, including invasion, metastasis, and the tumor-associated epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Further understanding of miR-34a's molecular pathways in cancer is also necessary for the development of precise diagnoses and effective treatments. We outlined the most recent research on miR-34a functions in GI cancers in this review. Additionally, we emphasize the significance of exosomal miR-34 in gastrointestinal cancers.

Biology and function of exosomes in tumor immunotherapy

Exosomes are nano-scale extracellular vesicles that are found widely in various biological fluids. As messengers, exosomes deliver characteristic biological information from donor cells, facilitating their accumulation and subsequent transfer of information to tumor immune cells. Immunotherapy is a cutting-edge strategy for cancer therapy, but it has not yet reached its full potential owing to severe side effects and limited efficacy. Exosomes possess antigens and immunostimulatory molecules and can serve as cell-free vaccines to induce antitumor immunity. In addition, given their stability, low immunogenicity, and targeting ability, exosomes represent ideal drug delivery systems in tumor immunotherapy by delivering cargoes, including non-coding ribonucleic acids (RNAs), membrane proteins, chemotherapeutic agents, and immune cell death inducers. Exosomes can also be engineered to precisely target tumor cells. However, as a rising star in tumor immunotherapy, exosomes are also impeded by some challenges, including the lack of uniform technical standards for their isolation and purification, the need to improve exosomal cargo loading for efficient exosome delivery, and the expansion of clinical trials, which are currently in their infancy. Long-term, multi-center, and large-scale clinical trials are needed to evaluate the performance of exosomes in the future. Nonetheless, exosomes have demonstrated encouraging performance in tumor immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the potential and challenges of exosomes in tumor immunotherapy, with the aim to shed light on exosomes as new-era tumor immunotherapy tools.

The copious capabilities of non-coding RNAs in cancer regulation, diagnosis and treatment

Globally, cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality, accounting for 10 million deaths per year. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play integral and diverse roles in cancer, possessing the ability to both promote oncogenesis and impede tumor formation. This review discusses the various roles of microRNAs, transfer RNA-derived small RNAs, long non-coding RNAs and lncRNA-derived microproteins in cancer progression and prevention. We highlight the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of these ncRNAs, with a particular focus on detection in liquid biopsies and targeting of ncRNAs with small inhibitory molecules. Ultimately, the biological functions of cancer-associated ncRNAs, as well as the development of ncRNA-based technologies, are compelling areas for further research, holding the possibility of revolutionizing cancer treatment and diagnosis.

Emerging functions and clinical applications of exosomal microRNAs in diseases

Exosomes are an important group of extracellular vesicles that transfer several kinds of biomolecules and facilitate cell-cell communication. The content of exosomes, particularly the amounts of microRNA (miRNAs) inside these vesicles, demonstrates a disease-specific pattern reflecting pathogenic processes and may be employed as a diagnostic and prognostic marker. miRNAs may enter recipient cells through exosomes and generate a RISC complex that can cause degradation of the target mRNAs or block translation of their corresponding proteins. Therefore, exosome-derived miRNAs constitute an important mechanism of gene regulation in recipient cells. The miRNA content of exosomes can be used as an important tool in the detection of diverse disorders, particularly cancers. This research field has an important situation in cancer diagnosis. In addition, exosomal microRNAs offer a great deal of promise in the treatment of human disorders. However, there are still certain challenges to be resolved. The most important challenges are as follow: the detection of exosomal miRNAs should be standardized, exosomal miRNAs-associated studies should be conducted in large number of clinical samples, and experiment settings and detection criteria should be consistent across different labs. The goal of this article is to present an overview of the effects of exosome-derived microRNAs on a variety of diseases, including gastrointestinal, pulmonary, neurological, and cardiovascular diseases, with a particular emphasis on malignancies.

Recent Trends in the Use of Small Extracellular Vesicles as Optimal Drug Delivery Vehicles in Oncology

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are produced by most cells and play an important role in cell-to-cell communication and maintaining cellular homeostasis. Their ability to transfer biological cargo to target cells makes them a promising tool for cancer drug delivery. Advances in sEV engineering, EV mimetics, and ligand-directed targeting have improved the efficacy of anticancer drug delivery and functionality. EV-based RNA interference and hybrid miRNA transfer have also been extensively used in various preclinical cancer models. Despite these developments, gaps still exist in our understanding of using sEVs to treat solid tumor malignancies effectively. This article provides an overview of the last five years of sEV research and its current status for the efficient and targeted elimination of cancer cells, which could advance cancer research and bring sEV formulations into clinical use.

Circ_0087862 promotes tumorigenesis and glycolysis in colorectal cancer by sponging miR-296-3p to regulate PGK1 expression

BACKGROUND

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) exert crucial roles in tumor progression of multiple cancers, including colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the functions of most circRNAs are not been fully elucidated. In this study, the role and mechanism of circ_0087862 in CRC were investigated.

METHODS

The expression of circ_0087862, microRNA-296-3p (miR-296-3p) and phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) was detected by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) assay were used to assess cell proliferation. Flow cytometry was employed to analyze cell apoptosis. Transwell assay was employed to evaluate cell invasion. Western blot assay was employed to detect the level of related protein markers and PGK1. The glucose consumption, lactate production were tested by corresponding kits. The relationship between miR-296-3p and circ_0087862 or PGK1 was verified by dual-luciferase reporter assay or RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assay. The in vivo function of circ_0087862 was examined by xenograft mice model.

RESULTS

The expression levels of circ_0087862 and PGK1 were up-regulated in CRC tissues and cells, while miR-296-3p was down-regulated. Circ_0087862 silencing suppressed cell proliferation, invasion and glycolysis and promoted cell apoptosis in CRC cells. Circ_0087862 targeted miR-296-3p in CRC cells. MiR-296-3p inhibition reversed circ_0087862 silencing-mediated inhibition effect on cell proliferation, invasion and glycolysis, as well as the promotion effect on cell apoptosis. PGK1 was a target of miR-296-3p, and the overexpression of PGK1 attenuated miR-296-3p-mediated tumor suppression effect on CRC progression. Moreover, knockdown of circ_0087862 inhibited tumorigenesis in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Circ_0087862 promoted CRC progression via miR-296-3p/PGK1 axis and might act as a potential target for CRC therapy.

Progress of regulatory RNA in small extracellular vesicles in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second most common malignant tumor of the gastrointestinal tract with the second highest mortality rate and the third highest incidence rate. Early diagnosis and treatment are important measures to reduce CRC mortality. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have emerged as key mediators that facilitate communication between tumor cells and various other cells, playing a significant role in the growth, invasion, and metastasis of cancer cells. Regulatory RNAs have been identified as potential biomarkers for early diagnosis and prognosis of CRC, serving as crucial factors in promoting CRC cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis, drug resistance, and immune cell differentiation. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the vital role of sEVs as biomarkers in CRC diagnosis and their potential application in CRC treatment, highlighting their importance as a promising avenue for further research and clinical translation.

Cross-Kingdom Interaction of miRNAs and Gut Microbiota with Non-Invasive Diagnostic and Therapeutic Implications in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) has one of the highest incidences among all types of malignant diseases, affecting millions of people worldwide. It shows slow progression, making it preventable. However, this is not the case due to shortcomings in its diagnostic and management procedure and a lack of effective non-invasive biomarkers for screening. Here, we discuss CRC-associated microRNAs (miRNAs) and gut microbial species with potential as CRC diagnostic and therapy biomarkers. We provide rich evidence of cross-kingdom miRNA-mediated interactions between the host and gut microbiome. miRNAs have emerged with the ability to shape the composition and dynamics of gut microbiota. Intestinal microbes can uptake miRNAs, which in turn influence microbial growth and provide the ability to regulate the abundance of various microbial species. In the context of CRC, targeting miRNAs could aid in manipulating the balance of the microbiota. Our findings suggest the need for correlation analysis between the composition of the gut microbiome and the miRNA expression profile.

Abscopal Effect, Extracellular Vesicles and Their Immunotherapeutic Potential in Cancer Treatment

The communication between tumor cells and the microenvironment plays a fundamental role in the development, growth and further immune escape of the tumor. This communication is partially regulated by extracellular vesicles which can direct the behavior of surrounding cells. In recent years, it has been proposed that this feature could be applied as a potential treatment against cancer, since several studies have shown that tumors treated with radiotherapy can elicit a strong enough immune response to eliminate distant metastasis; this phenomenon is called the abscopal effect. The mechanism behind this effect may include the release of extracellular vesicles loaded with damage-associated molecular patterns and tumor-derived antigens which activates an antigen-specific immune response. This review will focus on the recent discoveries in cancer cell communications via extracellular vesicles and their implication in tumor development, as well as their potential use as an immunotherapeutic treatment against cancer.

Research progress of exosomes as drug carriers in cancer and inflammation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) could be produced by most cells and play an important role in disease development. As a subtype of EVs, exosomes exhibit suitable size, rich surface markers and diverse contents, making them more appealing as potential drug carriers. Compared with traditional synthetic nanoparticles, exosomes possess superior biocompatibility and much lower immunogenicity. This work reviewed the most up-to-date research progress of exosomes as carriers for nucleic acids, proteins and small molecule drugs for cancer and inflammation management. The drug loading strategies and potential cellular uptake behaviour of exosomes are highlighted, trying to provide reference for future exosome design and application.

Extracellular Vesicles in Colorectal Cancer: From Tumor Growth and Metastasis to Biomarkers and Nanomedications

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading public health concern due to its incidence and high mortality rates, highlighting the requirement of an early diagnosis. Evaluation of circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs) might constitute a noninvasive and reliable approach for CRC detection and for patient follow-up because EVs display the molecular features of the cells they originate. EVs are released by almost all cell types and are mainly categorized as exosomes originating from exocytosis of intraluminal vesicles from multivesicular bodies, ectosomes resulting from outward budding of the plasma membrane and apoptotic bodies' ensuing cell shrinkage. These vesicles play a critical role in intercellular communications during physiological and pathological processes. They facilitate CRC progression and premetastatic niche formation, and they enable transfer of chemotherapy resistance to sensitive cells through the local or remote delivery of their lipid, nucleic acid and protein content. On another note, their stability in the bloodstream, their permeation in tissues and their sheltering of packaged material make engineered EVs suitable vectors for efficient delivery of tracers and therapeutic agents for tumor imaging or treatment. Here, we focus on the physiopathological role of EVs in CRCs, their value in the diagnosis and prognosis and ongoing investigations into therapeutic approaches.

Ferroptosis-dependent breast cancer cell-derived exosomes inhibit migration and invasion of breast cancer cells by suppressing M2 macrophage polarization

Aim

Ferroptosis, a novel type of iron-dependent cell death, plays a vital role in breast cancer progression. However, the function of ferroptosis-induced cancer cell-derived exosomes in breast cancer remains unclear. In this study, we attempted to investigate the impact of breast cancer cells-derived exosomes induced by ferroptosis on the polarization of macrophages and the progression of breast cancer.

Methods

Erastin was used to induce ferroptosis and breast cancer cell-derived exosomes were identified by transmission electron microscopy. Western blot, quantitative reverse transcription PCR, immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, and ELISA were used to determine the role of exosomes in macrophage polarization. Transwell assays were used to detect breast cancer cell migration, and invasion.

Results

Our results showed that erastin promoted ferroptosis in breast cancer cells with increased Fe2+ level and ROS production. Breast cancer cell-derived exosomes induced by ferroptosis were successfully isolated and verified to be internalized by macrophages. In addition, ferroptosis-induced breast cancer cell-derived exosomes (Fe-exo) remarkably diminished M2 marker, Arg-1 expression. The ratio of CD206⁺ macrophages was significantly decreased after Fe-exo treatment. CD206 protein expression and Arg-1 level were dramatically reduced in M2 macrophages incubated by Fe-exo. Moreover, autophagy PCR array showed that the expression of 84 autophagy-related genes were altered after macrophages were incubated by Fe-exo. Furthermore, macrophages incubated by Fe-exo repressed the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells.

Conclusion

Ferroptosis-dependent cancer cell-derived exosomes inhibited M2 polarization of macrophages, which in turn inhibited migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. This study provides novel therapeutic strategies for patients with breast cancer.

Unveiling the therapeutic potential of cabozantinib-loaded poly D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid and polysarcosine nanoparticles in inducing apoptosis and cytotoxicity in human HepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines and in vivo anti-tumor activity in SCID female mice

Introduction

The study aimed to develop a nano-based drug delivery system for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a type of liver cancer that accounts for 90% of all liver malignancies. The study focused on the use of cabozantinib (CNB), a potent multikinase inhibitor that targets the VEGF receptor 2, as the chemotherapeutic drug. We developed CNB-loaded nanoparticles made from Poly D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid, and Polysarcosine (CNB-PLGA-PSar-NPs) for use in human HepG2 cell lines.

Methods

By O/W solvent evaporation method, the polymeric nanoparticles were prepared. The various techniques, such as photon correlation spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used, to determine the formulation's particle size, zeta potential, and morphology. SYBR Green/ROX qPCR Master Mix and RT-PCR equipment used to measure liver cancer cell line and tissue mRNA expression and MTT assay to test HepG2 cell cytotoxicity. Cell cycle arrest analysis, annexin V assay, and ZE5 Cell Analyzer apoptosis assay were also performed.

Results

The results of the study showed that the particle diameters were 192.0 ± 3.67 nm with 0.128 PDI and -24.18 ± 3.34 mV zeta potential. The antiproliferative and proapoptotic effects of CNB-PLGA-PSar-NPs were evaluated using MTT and flow cytometry (FCM). The IC50 value of CNB-PLGA-PSar-NPs was 45.67 µg/mL, 34.73 µg/mL, and 21.56 µg/mL for 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. The study also found that 11.20% and 36.77% of CNB-PLGA-PSar-NPs-treated cells were apoptotic at 60 µg/mL and 80 µg/mL, respectively, suggesting that the nanoparticles were effective in inducing apoptosis in the cancer cells. It can also conclude that, CNB-PLGA-PSar-NPs inhibit human HepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cells and kill them by upregulating the tumour suppressor genes MT1F, MT1X, and downregulating MTTP, APOA4. Further in vivo antitumor activity was well reported in SCID female mice.

Discussion

Overall, this study suggests that the CNB-PLGA-PSar-NPs are a promising drug delivery system for the treatment of HCC, and further research is needed to investigate their potential in clinical treatment.

The value of exosome-derived noncoding RNAs in colorectal cancer proliferation, metastasis, and clinical applications

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in the world today, and its incidence and mortality rates are increasing every year. The ease of proliferation and metastasis of CRC has long been an important reason for its high mortality rate. Exosomes serve as key mediators that mediate communication between tumor cells and various other cells. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been shown to play a key role in apoptosis, immunosuppression and proliferation metastasis in cancer. ncRNAs are loaded on exosomes and initiate the onset of metastasis by promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) at the primary site of the tumor. Meanwhile, exosome-derived ncRNAs construct a pre-metastatic niche (PMN) for CRC metastasis by forming an inflammatory microenvironment in distant organs, immunosuppression, and promoting angiogenesis and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Here, we summarize the specific mechanisms associated with exosome-derived ncRNAs promoting local invasion and metastasis in CRC. Finally, we focus on their value for clinical application in future CRC diagnosis and treatment.

STAT3 pathway in cancers: Past, present, and future

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), a member of the STAT family, discovered in the cytoplasm of almost all types of mammalian cells, plays a significant role in biological functions. The duration of STAT3 activation in normal tissues is a transient event and is strictly regulated. However, in cancer tissues, STAT3 is activated in an aberrant manner and is induced by certain cytokines. The continuous activation of STAT3 regulates the expression of downstream proteins associated with the formation, progression, and metastasis of cancers. Thus, elucidating the mechanisms of STAT3 regulation and designing inhibitors targeting the STAT3 pathway are considered promising strategies for cancer treatment. This review aims to introduce the history, research advances, and prospects concerning the STAT3 pathway in cancer. We review the mechanisms of STAT3 pathway regulation and the consequent cancer hallmarks associated with tumor biology that are induced by the STAT3 pathway. Moreover, we summarize the emerging development of inhibitors that target the STAT3 pathway and novel drug delivery systems for delivering these inhibitors. The barriers against targeting the STAT3 pathway, the focus of future research on promising targets in the STAT3 pathway, and our perspective on the overall utility of STAT3 pathway inhibitors in cancer treatment are also discussed.

Engineering tumor-derived small extra cellular vesicles to encapsulate miR-34a, effectively inhibits 4T1 cell proliferation, migration, and gene expression

Tumor cells produce small extra cellular vesicles-(tsEV) massively, which act as cancer messengers that may also have anti-cancer effects. Based on this knowledge, we hypothesized that we can benefit from 4T1-derived sEVs to amplify the anti-cancer effects of miR-34a-replacement therapy in 4T1 cells. Supernatant of 4T1 cultured cells gathered after 24 h of exposure to serum-free media. tsEVs purified by commercial kit and characterized by transmission and scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and bicinchoninic acid assay. Modified CaCl₂ method applied for miR-34a loading in tsEV (tsEV-miR) and loading confirmation evaluated by the relative expression of miR-34a. MTT, annexin V/PI, cell cycle, scratch test, and real-time PCR were performed for proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, and relative expression of miR-34a target genes after treatment with tsEV/tsEV-miR, respectively. The results indicated that tsEV-miR provides a time-dose-dependent anti-proliferative effect versus tsEV/control group. tsEV-miR could induce apoptosis and arrest the cell cycle at G0/G1 phase, and moreover, it effectively halted the invasion capability of 4T1 cells. Treatment with tsEV-miR down-regulated miR-34a target genes, including B-cell lymphoma-2, vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptor, matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9, and interleukin-6. Engineered tsEVs can affect different aspects of 4T1 cancer cells including proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle, migration, and cancer-related gene expression profile. In this regard, tsEV could be considered a proper vehicle for miR-34a replacement therapy and could exacerbate its anti-cancer effects in triple-negative breast cancer. Indeed, TNBC can be targeted by multiple angles by its weapon.

Exosome-based nanomedicine for cancer treatment by targeting inflammatory pathways: Current status and future perspectives

Cancer is one of the dreadful diseases worldwide. Surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, are the three basic standard modes of cancer treatment. However, difficulties in cancer treatment are increasing due to immune escape, spreading of cancer to other places, and resistance of cancer cells to therapies. Various signaling mechanisms, including PI3K/Akt/mTOR, RAS, WNT/β-catenin, TGF-beta, and notch pathways, are involved in cancer resistance. The adaptive inflammatory response is the initial line of defence against infection. However, chronic inflammation can lead to tumorigenesis, malignant transformation, tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. The most commonly dysregulated inflammatory pathways linked to cancer include NF-κB, MAPK, JAK-STAT, and PI3K/AKT. To overcome major hurdles in cancer therapy, nanomedicine is receiving much attention due to its role as a vehicle for delivering chemotherapeutic agents that specifically target tumor sites. Several biocompatible nanocarriers including polymer and inorganic nanoparticles, liposomes, micellar nanoparticles, nanotubes, and exosomes have been extensively studied. Exosome has been reported as an important potential sytem that could be effectively used as a bioinspired, bioengineered, and biomimetic drug delivery solution considering its toxicity, immunogenicity, and rapid clearance by the mononuclear phagocyte system. Exosome-mimetic vesicles are receiving much interest for developing nano-sized delivery systems. In this review, exosomes in detail as well as certain other nanocarriers, and their potential therapeutic roles in cancer therapy has been thoroughly discussed. Additionally, we also reviewed on oncogenic and tumor suppressor proteins, inflammation, and their associated signaling pathways and their interference by exosomes based nanomedicine.

The Incredible Potential of Exosomes as Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is common cancer that is one of the leading causes of cancerrelated deaths around the world. The creation of new biomarkers for this disease is an important public health strategy for lowering the disease's mortality rate. According to new research, exosomes may be important sources of biomarkers in CRC. Exosomes are nanometer-sized membrane vesicles (30-200 nm) secreted by normal and cancer cells that transport RNA and proteins between cells and are thought to help with intercellular communication. Exosomes have been linked to CRC initiation and progression, and some differentially expressed RNAs and proteins in exosomes have been identified as potential cancer detection candidates. As a result, studying the relationship between exosomes and CRC may aid in the development of new biomarkers for the disease. This article discusses the importance of exosomes as biomarkers in the diagnosis of CRC, as well as their use in the treatment of CRC metastasis, chemoresistance, and recrudescence. The benefits and drawbacks of using exosomes as tumour markers are also discussed.