"Blocking" and "Filtering": a Commentary on Mobile Technology, Racism, and the Sexual Networks of Young Black MSM (YBMSM)

Sexual Racism on Geosocial Networking Applications and Identity Outness Among Sexual Minority Men in the US

Although the use of geosocial networking (GSN) applications for relationship seeking is prevalent among sexual minority men (SMM), SMM of color may be vulnerable to sexual racism online. Little is known about how sexual racism relates to SMM of color's identity outness, which is integral to the minority stress model and the focus of this study. Eighty SMM, recruited through social media (53.7% racial/ethnic minority), reported their experiences of race-based discrimination on GSN apps and identity outness. Chi-squared and Fisher's tests examined differences in race-based discrimination online by participants' race/ethnicity. A factorial MANOVA was performed on outness to family, peers, and healthcare providers. Nearly one-third of participants experienced race-based discrimination online. Higher percentages of SMM of color experienced race-based discrimination than White SMM. SMM who experienced race-based discrimination online reported lower outness to family than those who had not. Post-hoc analyses revealed that Asian SMM reported consistently lower outness than other groups. Our findings resonated with the mediation framework of minority stress, suggesting that sexual racism online may be a distal stressor that contributes to the group-specific process of identity outness. This also illustrated the importance of addressing sexual racism on GSN apps to buffer existing stress with outness among SMM of color.

Online Dating and Mental Health among Young Sexual Minority Black Men: Is Ethnic Identity Protective in the Face of Sexual Racism?

Racialized Sexual Discrimination (RSD), also known as 'sexual racism,' is pervasive within online dating venues. RSD is associated with poor mental health outcomes among young sexual minority Black men (YSMBM), and there is limited research on factors that may mitigate this association. Ethnic identity has been identified as a potential protective factor for racial/ethnic minorities who encounter racialized stressors, though some evidence suggests that ethnic identity may also intensify the negative effects of racial discrimination. Using data from a cross-sectional web-survey of YSMBM (n = 690), a series of linear regression models were estimated to examine the moderating effect of ethnic identity search and ethnic identity commitment on the relationship between RSD and depressive symptoms/feeling of self-worth. Results indicated that having moderate-to-high scores on commitment attenuated the association between being physically objectified by White men and higher depressive symptoms. However, having high scores on commitment intensified the association between being rejected by Black men and lower feelings of self-worth. Stronger identity commitment may be protective against objectification from White men, though it may also exacerbate negative outcomes related to in-group discrimination. These findings may have important implications for the development of individual and group-level interventions addressing ethnic identity among YSMBM.

A Good App Is Hard to Find: Examining Differences in Racialized Sexual Discrimination across Online Intimate Partner-Seeking Venues

Young sexual minority Black men (YSMBM) report widespread instances of Racialized Sexual Discrimination (RSD) when seeking intimate partners online. RSD is associated with negative psychological health outcomes; however, little is known about the differences between virtual environments, and whether users are exposed to differential types/frequencies of RSD across different virtual environments. Using data from a cross-sectional web survey of YSMBM (N = 548), a multivariate Kruskal–Wallis test was conducted comparing those who primarily used Jack’d and those who primarily used Grindr to meet intimate partners; the frequency with which these two groups encountered six RSD domains was compared. Men who primarily used Grindr reported more frequent instances of White superiority and rejection from White men compared with men who primarily used Jack’d. Men who primarily used Jack’d reported more frequent instances of physical objectification from Black men compared with men who primarily used Grindr. RSD may manifest differentially based on the specific venue that YSMBM use. Such differences may reflect the sociodemographic makeup of these spaces, as well as differences in acceptability/normalization of different forms of RSD. These findings have implications for the development of anti-RSD initiatives that target the specific sociocultural norms that are unique to different virtual environments.

Disclosure of Sexual Identities Across Social-Relational Contexts: Findings from a National Sample of Black Sexual Minority Men

Black sexual minority men (BSMM) in the USA navigate a range of factors that may influence the extent to which they disclose or conceal their sexual identity in various social contexts. To date, few studies have investigated the correlates of sexual identity disclosure or concealment among BSMM across multiple life domains. Guided by a minority stress perspective and intersectionality, we analyzed data from N = 809 BSMM who participated in the Social Justice Sexuality Survey. We conducted ordinary least squares regression to examine the relative weight of perceptions of homophobia, religiosity, LGBT community connectedness, racial identity salience, and sexual identity salience on disclosure of sexual identity in six social-relational contexts: (1) family, (2) friends, (3) neighbors, (4) religious community, (5) work, and (6) online. Findings indicate that BSMM disclosed their sexual identity unevenly across social-relational contexts. Notably, LGBTQ community connectedness and sexual identity importance were consistent predictors of sexual identity disclosure across contexts. In contrast, perceptions of homophobia were not related to sexual identity disclosure, suggesting that other factors may be more salient for BSMM when deciding to disclose their sexual identity. Finally, bisexual men consistently reported lower levels of sexual identity disclosure relative to gay men in all six contexts. Study findings have important implications for future research on sexual identity disclosure with diverse samples of BSMM.

Blocking and being blocked on gay dating apps among MSM attending a sexual health clinic: an observational study

Background

There are limited studies on blocking and men who have sex with men (MSM) health outcomes. We need such data in China, to better understand the relationship between Chinese MSM gay app use and health outcomes, thus providing insight on risky sexual behaviors and HIV transmission among Chinese MSM - one of the world’s largest MSM communities. Blocking someone is when users select a function on an app to prevent another user from contacting them and being blocked is when someone is prevented from contacting another user. We studied the correlates of blocking on the world’s largest gay dating app among Chinese MSM (N = 208).

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional survey as part of an HIV testing intervention in Guangzhou, China, May–December 2019. Using logistic regression models, we estimated the correlates of blocking (e.g. sociodemographic characteristics, sexual behavior, HIV testing history, social network data).

Results

MSM had a mean age of 27.9 years (SD = 7.1) and median of one sexual partner in the last 3 months. About 62% had blocked someone in their lifetime and 46% had been blocked in their lifetime. Each additional male partner was associated with an 87% (aOR = 1.87, 95%CI = 1.03, 3.40) increased chance of being blocked. Reporting a versatile sexual role was related with a 90% (aOR = 0.10, 95%CI = 0.02, 0.45) decreased likelihood of blocking behavior and an 86% (aOR = 0.14, 95%CI = 0.04, 0.46) reduced chance of being blocked.

Conclusions

Number of male partners may be associated with blocking behavior, with implications for the design of online sexual health interventions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-12182-w.

"No Fats, No Femmes, and No Blacks or Asians": The Role of Body-type, Sex Position, and Race on Condom Use Online

Despite the promises to end HIV infection rates by 2030, several factors continue to contribute to rising HIV infection rates in sexual minority communities. In fact, the CDC predicts that more than half of gay and bisexual men of color will be infected in the coming years if an intervention is not staged. While much focus has been placed on PrEP access, less has been given to the social environment online, which many men who have sex with men use to find sexual partners. This environment, facilitated by the anonymity afforded to men online, is infected with anti-fat, anti-femme, anti-Black bias aimed at men constructed as less desirable and summed up in the phrase, "No fats, No femmes, and No Blacks or Asians." Considering this online environment and the fact that past research suggests a relationship between weight and condom use, sex position and condom use and race and condom use, the researchers test all three pairings as well as a fourth hypothesis predicting if men who embody all three variables are also more likely to go condom-less. Findings from the analysis were mixed with men with "ideal body types" (slim, athletic and muscular built) and bottom men being more likely to have bareback on their profiles for sex behavior while men of color were more likely than Whites to have safe sex only. Most strikingly, regardless of body-type, sex position, or HIV status, Whites were more likely to have bareback on their profiles.

Increasing HIV Testing and Viral Suppression via Stigma Reduction in a Social Networking Mobile Health Intervention Among Black and Latinx Young Men and Transgender Women Who Have Sex With Men (HealthMpowerment): Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Stigma and discrimination related to sexuality, race, ethnicity, and HIV status negatively impact HIV testing, engagement in care, and consistent viral suppression (VS) among young Black and Latinx men who have sex with men and transgender women who have sex with men (YBLMT). Few interventions address the effects of intersectional stigma among youth living with HIV and those at risk for HIV within the same virtual space.

OBJECTIVE

Building on the success of the HealthMpowerment (HMP) mobile health (mHealth) intervention (HMP 1.0) and with the input of a youth advisory board, HMP 2.0 is an app-based intervention that promotes user-generated content and social support to reduce intersectional stigma and improve HIV-related outcomes among YBLMT. The primary objective of this study is to test whether participants randomized to HMP 2.0 report improvement in HIV prevention and care continuum outcomes compared with an information-only control arm. We will also explore whether participant engagement, as measured by paradata (data collected as users interact with an mHealth intervention, eg, time spent using the intervention), mediates stigma- and HIV care-related outcomes. Finally, we will assess whether changes in intersectional stigma and improvements in HIV care continuum outcomes vary across different types of social networks formed within the intervention study arms.

METHODS

We will enroll 1050 YBLMT aged 15 to 29 years affected by HIV across the United States. Using an HIV-status stratified, randomized trial design, participants will be randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 app-based conditions (information-only app-based control arm, a researcher-created network arm of HMP 2.0, or a peer-referred network arm of HMP 2.0). Behavioral assessments will occur at baseline, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. For participants living with HIV, self-collected biomarkers (viral load) are scheduled for baseline, 6, and 12 months. For HIV-negative participants, up to 3 HIV self-testing kits will be available during the study period.

RESULTS

Research activities began in September 2018 and are ongoing. The University of Pennsylvania is the central institutional review board for this study (protocol #829805) with institutional reliance agreements with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Duke University, and SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University. Study recruitment began on July 20, 2020. A total of 205 participants have been enrolled as of November 20, 2020.

CONCLUSIONS

Among a large sample of US-based YBLMT, this study will assess whether HMP 2.0, an app-based intervention designed to ameliorate stigma and its negative sequelae, can increase routine HIV testing among HIV-negative participants and consistent VS among participants living with HIV. If efficacious and brought to scale, this intervention has the potential to significantly impact the disproportionate burden of HIV among YBLMT in the United States.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03678181; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT03678181.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/24043.

Potential HIV transmission risk among spouses: marriage intention and expected extramarital male-to-male sex among single men who have sex with men in Hunan, China

Objective

The HIV epidemic in China is shifting from the high-risk groups of men who have sex with men (MSM), injection drug users and sex workers to the general population, and sexual contact among spouses is assumed to be one route of transmission. Our objective was to determine the intention to marry and the expected extramarital male-to-male sex among single Chinese MSM, in order to estimate the potential HIV transmission risk among MSM living with HIV and their female spouses.

Methods

We conducted a web-based, cross-sectional survey between May 2016 and May 2017. A questionnaire covering sociodemographic characteristics, sexual behaviours, HIV-related and homosexuality-related stigma, marriage intention, and expected extramarital sexual behaviours was completed by 556 single MSM in Hunan, China. Descriptive statistics, χ² test, two-sample t-test and multivariate logistic regression analysis were performed.

Results

Currently 48.9% of the participants intended to marry a woman in their lifetime, and 91% of them reported that they would continue to have sex with men after getting married. Those who were living with parents (OR=2.26), self-identified as bisexual (OR=2.57), had at least one heterosexual partner in the previous 6 months (OR=0.33) and perceived a higher level of self-homosexual stigma (OR=1.78) had greater intention to marry a woman.

Conclusion

Nearly half of Chinese MSM intend to marry women, which has significantly dropped from the estimated percentage more than 10 years ago for Chinese MSM. However, the expectation of extramarital homosexual behaviours was common in these men. Sexual and gender minority stresses especially from family members, homosexual identity assertiveness and related stigma were the main factors for marriage intention, which should be addressed in future studies and practices.